533. ENGLISH - Commonly Confused Words

Commonly Confused Words

 

A

• A, An, & And
  Use the indefinite articles a and an before nouns: a before a noun that begins with a consonant sound (a doctor, a horse, a university); an before a noun that begins with a vowel sound (an envelope, an hour, an umbrella). And is a coordinating conjunction: use it to join words, phrases, and clauses.

• Accept, Except, & Expect
  Accept is a verb that means to take in. The preposition except means other than. The verb expect means to depend on or await.

• Adapt & Adopt
  The verb adapt means to take something and make it suitable for a specific use or situation. The verb adopt means to take something and make it one's own as is.

• Adverse & Averse
  The adjective adverse means antagonistic, opposing, harmful, or unfavorable; often it refers to things. The adjective averse means strongly disinclined; often it refers to people.

• Advice & Advise
  The noun advice means guidance. The verb advise means to recommend or counsel.

• Affect & Effect
  Affect is usually a verb meaning to influence. Effect is usually a noun meaning result. When used as a verb, effect means to cause.

• Aggravate & Irritate
  The verb aggravate means to make worse and, according to some style guides, should not be confused with the verb irritate, which means to annoy. But see the usage notes.

• Aid and Aide
  The verb aid means to assist: to provide what is needed to achieve a goal. The noun aid refers to a person or thing that provides assistance. An aide (from aide-de-camp) is a person who acts as an assistant.

• All Ready & Already
  The phrase all ready means completely prepared. Already is an adverb meaning previously or by this time.

• All Together & Altogether
  The phrase all together refers to people or things gathered in one place. The adverb altogether means entirely or wholly.

• Allude & Elude
  To allude to something means to make an indirect reference. (Don't use allude as a synonym for name.) To elude means to evade or to escape understanding or attention.

• Allusion & Illusion
  The noun allusion means an indirect reference to a person, event, or thing. Illusion is a noun that means false impression.

• Allusive & Elusive
  Something that is allusive contains (or is characterized by) indirect references. Someone or something that is elusive is hard to describe or skillful at avoiding capture.

• A Lot (Much, Many)
  Spell a lot as two words, not one. In formal writing (such as essays and exams), avoid a lot in favor of much or many.

• Altar & Alter
  The noun altar refers to the table in churches where religious ceremonies are carried out. The verb alter means to change, modify, or adjust.

• Ambiguous & Ambivalent
  Ambiguous means doubtful or unclear, open to more than one interpretation. Ambivalent means holding opposing attitudes or feelings toward a person, object, or idea.

• Amoral & Immoral
  The adjective amoral means lying outside the moral order or acting without regard for any particular code of morality. The adjective immoral means not moral--that is, violating traditionally held moral principles.

• Amount & Number
  Use amount to refer to a quantity. Use number to refer to people or things that can be counted.

• Anxious & Eager
  Although anxious has been used as a synonym for eager since the 18th century, many usage guides insist that anxious should be used only when its subject is worried or uneasy about the anticipated event.

• Anyone & Any One
  The indefinite pronoun anyone refers to people but not to particular individuals. Any one is an adjective phrase that refers to specific but unidentified things or individuals. (A similar distinction applies to anybody and any body, nobody and no body.)

• Appraise & Apprise
  The verb appraise means to evaluate or set a price on something. To apprise is to inform or notify someone.

• Are & Our
  The verb are is a present tense form of the verb to be. The adjective our is the possessive form of we.

• Assure, Ensure, & Insure The verbs assure, ensure, and insure all mean to make certain or secure. According to Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, "insure sometimes stresses the taking of necessary measures beforehand, and assure distinctively implies the removal of doubt and suspense from a person's mind." In addition, insure means to protect against financial loss, and assure, which is almost always used with reference to people, generally means to promise. For some finer distinctions (and disagreements), see the usage notes.

• Aural & Oral
  The adjective aural refers to sounds perceived by the ear. The adjective oral relates to the mouth: spoken rather than written.

 

B

• Baited & Bated
  A hook, witness, or animal is baited (lured, enticed, tempted). Breath is bated (moderated).

• Beside & Besides
  Beside is a preposition meaning next to. Besides is a preposition meaning except or in addition to. As a conjunctive adverb, besides means also.

• Board & Bored
  The noun board refers to a piece of sawed lumber, a flat piece of material (such as a chalkboard), or a table spread with a meal. As a verb, board means to cover with boards or to enter.

• Breath & Breathe
  Breath (as in "bad breath") is a noun. Breathe (as in "to breathe pure air") is a verb.

C

• Capital & Capitol
  Capital has multiple meanings: (1) a city that serves as the seat of government; (2) wealth in the form of money or property; (3) an asset or advantage; (4) a capital letter (the type of letter used at the beginning of a sentence). Capitol refers to the building in which a legislative assembly meets.

• Carat, Caret, & Carrot
  The noun carat (or karat) refers to a unit of weight for precious stones or a measure of the purity of gold. A caret is a proofreading symbol (^) that indicates where something is to be inserted in a text. A carrot is an orange vegetable enjoyed by rabbits.

• Ceiling & Sealing
  The noun ceiling refers to the upper interior surface of a room or any upper limit. Sealing (from the verb to seal) means the act of closing or securing something.

• Censor & Censure
  The verb censor means to suppress or remove something that is considered objectionable. The noun censor refers to a person who censors things. The verb censure means to find fault or condemn someone. The noun censure refers to a reprimand or a judgment involving condemnation.

• Cereal & Serial
  The noun cereal refers to a grain (such as wheat or oats) or a breakfast food prepared from one of these grains. The noun serial refers to a work that appears in parts at regular intervals. The adjective serial means arranged or occurring in a series.

• Choose, Chose, & Chosen
  Choose is an irregular verb, with chose as the past form and chosen as the past participle form.

• Chord & Cord
  The noun chord is a musical term (two or more notes sounded together); chord also refers to an emotion or disposition ("a responsive chord"). The noun cord refers to a rope or a bond, an insulated electrical cable, or an anatomical structure ("vocal cords").

• Cite, Sight, & Site
  The verb cite means to mention or quote as an authority or example. The noun sight refers to something that is seen or the power or process of seeing. The noun site means a particular place.

• Click & Clique
  As a noun, click refers to a brief, sharp noise. The verb click means to produce a clicking sound or to press down and release a button on a mouse or other pointing device. The noun clique refers to an exclusive group of friends or associates.

• Climactic & Climatic
  The adjective climactic corresponds to the noun climax: "a climactic scene." The adjective climatic corresponds to the noun climate: "climatic research."

• Close, Clothes, & Cloths
  The verb close (pronounced "kloz") means to shut, complete, or bring to an end. The adjective close (pronounced "klos") means near, compact, or familiar. The noun clothes means clothing. Cloths is the plural of the noun cloth (fabric).

• Coarse & Course
  The adjective coarse means rough, common, inferior, or indecent. The noun course can mean several things, including path, playing field, mode of behavior, unit of study, and onward movement. As a verb, course means to move swiftly.

• Collaborate & Corroborate
  The verb collaborate means to cooperate or work jointly with others. The verb corroborate means to strengthen, support, or confirm with evidence.

• Complement & Compliment
  Complement means something that completes or brings to perfection. (For a definition of the grammatical term, see complement.) A compliment is an expression of praise.

• Confidant & Confident
  The noun confidant refers to a person (usually a friend or associate) to whom secrets or private matters are disclosed. The adjective confident means certain, bold, or self-assured.

• Conscience & Conscious
  The noun conscience means the sense of what is right and wrong. The adjective conscious means being aware or deliberate.

• Consequently & Subsequently
  Consequently is a conjunctive adverb that means as a result. The adverb subsequently means next--following in time, order, or place.

• Continual & Continuous
  Continual means frequently repeated (that is, going on with occasional interruptions). Continuous means unceasing (going on without interruption).

• Council & Counsel
  The noun council refers to a government body or an assembly of officials. The noun counsel means advice, guidance, or consultation. As a verb, counsel means to advise.

• Credible & Credulous
  The adjective credible means believable, worthy, or trustworthy. (Incredible means unbelievable or extraordinary.) The adjective credulous means gullible--tending to believe too easily or readily. (Incredulous means skeptical.)

D

• Days & Daze
  Days is the plural form of the noun day (as in "one or two days a week"). The noun daze means a stunned or bewildered condition; as a verb, daze means to stun or to dazzle.

• Dazed & Dazzled
  Dazed usually means shocked or stunned (as with a heavy object). Dazzled means blinded with intense light or amazed by a spectacular display or performance.

• Defective & Deficient
  The adjective defective means faulty, marked by a defect. The adjective deficient means inadequate or insufficient, lacking an essential quality.

• Defuse & Diffuse
  The verb defuse means to remove a fuse (from a bomb, for example) or to make a situation less dangerous, harmful, or tense. The verb diffuse means to spread out or scatter. As an adjective, diffuse means widely spread or wordy.

• Deprecate & Depreciate
  The verb deprecate means to deplore, disparage, express disapproval of something. The verb depreciate means to drop in value or to lower in estimation or esteem. Both verbs can also mean belittle. (See the usage notes.)

• Desert & Dessert
  A desert is a dry, sandy region or wasteland; the verb desert means to abandon. A dessert is a sweet dish served at the end of a meal.

• Device & Devise
  The noun device means a gadget, scheme, or procedure. The verb devise means to plan, conceive, or invent.

• Discover & Invent
  The verb discover means to become aware of something previously unknown. The verb invent means to make (or make up) something that previously did not exist.

• Discreet & Discrete
  The adjective discreet means prudently self-restrained or tactful. Discrete means distinct or separate.

• Disinterested & Uninterested
  The adjective disinterested means impartial and without bias. Uninterested means indifferent or unconcerned.

• Distinct & Distinctive
  The adjective distinct means clearly defined and readily distinguishable from all others. Distinct also means notable or highly probable. Distinctive means set off by appearances or characteristic of a particular person, place, or thing.

• Dual & Duel
  The adjective dual means double or twofold. Duel is a noun or verb referring to a fight or struggle.

E

• Economic & Economical
  In present-day usage, the adjective economical generally means thrifty--marked by careful use of resources or operating with little waste. The adjective economic (related to the field of economics) generally refers to the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. (See the usage notes.)

• Elicit & Illicit
  The verb elicit means to call forth or bring out. The adjective illicit means unlawful or not permitted.

• Eminent & Imminent
  The adjective eminent means prominent or outstanding. Imminent means impending, about to occur.

• Envelop & Envelope
  Envelop (with the accent on the second syllable) is a verb meaning cover or enclose. Envelope (first syllable accented) is a noun meaning a container used for mailing.

• Epigram, Epigraph, & Epitaph
  Each of these words beginning with epi- (from the Greek word for "upon") has multiple definitions, but here are the most common meanings:
• An epigram is a brief, witty statement in prose or verse--similar to an aphorism.
• An epigraph is a brief quotation set at the beginning of a text (a book, a chapter of a book, an essay, a poem) to suggest its theme.
• An epitaph is a brief inscription in prose or verse on a tombstone or monument.
• Eventually & Ultimately
  The adverb eventually refers to an unspecified time in the future. Ultimately means in the end.

• Every Day & Everyday
  The adjective everyday (written as one word) means routine, ordinary, or commonplace. The adverb every day (two words) means each day.

• Evoke & Invoke
  The verb evoke means to summon, call forth, or call to mind. The verb invoke means to call for support or assistance, or to summon with incantations.

• Explicit & Implicit
  Explicit means clearly expressed or readily observable. Implicit means implied or expressed indirectly.

F

• Faint & Feint
  As both a noun and a verb, faint refers to a brief loss of consciousness. As an adjective, faint means lacking in strength, conviction, clarity, or brightness. The noun feint refers to a mock attack or deceptive action meant to divert attention from one's real purpose.

• Fair & Fare
  The adjective fair means just and unbiased or pleasing, clear, and clean. The noun fair (as in "state fair") refers to an exhibition or exposition. The noun fare refers to food and drink or a transportation fee (as in "bus fare"). The verb fare (as in "fare thee well") means to go, get along, succeed.

• Farther & Further
  Farther usually refers to physical distance. Further refers to an extension of time or degree.

• Faze & Phase
  The verb faze means to bother or disturb the composure (of someone). As a noun, phase means a stage of development or a distinct portion of a process, system, or presentation. As a verb, phase means to plan or carry out systematically in stages.

• Few (Fewer) & Little (Less)
  Few and fewer refer to people or objects that can be counted. Little and less refer to a small quantity.

• Finally & Finely
  The adverb finally (from final) means at last, coming at the end. The adverb finely (from fine) means precisely, minutely, or extremely well done.

• Flair & Flare
  The noun flair means a talent or a distinctive quality or style. As a noun, flare means a fire or a blazing light. As a verb, flare means to burn with an unsteady flame or shine with a sudden light. Violence, troubles, tempers, and nostrils can flare.

• Flaunt & Flout
  To flaunt means "to show off." To flout means "to defy" or "to show contempt for."

• Flesh Out & Flush Out
  To flesh out something (like a plan or an idea) is to expand it or give it substance. To flush out means to force someone or something out of hiding or to clean something (usually by forcing water through a container).

• Flew, Flu, & Flue
  Flew is the simple past form of the verb fly. The noun flu (shortened form of influenza) refers to a contagious viral infection. The noun flue is a channel in a chimney or any enclosed passageway.

• Flounder & Founder
  The verb flounder means to struggle, to make clumsy efforts to move or regain one's balance. The verb founder means to sink or become disabled.

• Foreword & Forward
  The noun foreword refers to a preface or an introductory note, often one composed by a person other than the author. Forward is an adjective and an adverb with several meanings related to direction.

• Formally & Formerly
  The adverb formally means "in a formal way." The adverb formerly means "at an earlier time."

• Forth & Fourth
  The adverb forth means onward in time, place, or order. It appears in the expressions "and so forth" and "back and forth." The adjective fourth refers to the ordinal number between third and fifth. Fourth may also refer to a musical tone or a gear on a vehicle.

• Fortunate & Fortuitous
  The primary meaning of fortunate is "lucky" or "auspicious." The primary meaning of fortuitous is "accidental." In recent decades, however, fortuitous has been used synonymously with fortunate and felicitous. See the usage notes.

• Full & Fulsome
  Put simply, the adjective full means "complete" or "containing all that is possible," while the adjective fulsome means "offensive" or "insincere." And for over a century, most usage guides have encouraged us to draw this clear distinction between the two words. But as the usage notes indicate, the "true" meaning of fulsome remains ambiguous and controversial.

G

• Gibe, Jibe, & Jive
  As both a noun and a verb, gibe refers to a taunting or derisive remark. In this sense, jibe is considered an acceptable alternative to gibe. The verb jibe means to be in accord or consistent with something. In addition, jibe (commonly spelled gybe in British English) is a nautical term that refers to the shifting of a sail. Jibe can also be used figuratively for any sudden shift of direction. The noun jive refers to swing music, foolish talk, or the jargon of hipsters. As a verb, jive means to dance, talk, or mislead. Don't confuse jive with jibe.

• Gourmand & Gourmet
  The noun gourmand refers to someone who is extremely (and often excessively) fond of eating and drinking. A gourmet (both a noun and an adjective) is a connoisseur: someone with refined tastes in food and drink.

• Grisly & Grizzly
  The adjective grisly means horrible, fearsome, disgusting. The noun grizzly refers to a large brown bear. As an adjective, grizzly (more commonly grizzled) means streaked with gray.

• Groan & Grown
  The verb groan means to make a sound expressive of grief, pain, or stress. The noun groan refers to the sound made in groaning. Grown is the past participle form of the verb grow--to increase, expand, develop. The adjective grown means mature or fully developed.

H

• Hanged & Hung
  For centuries, hanged and hung were used interchangeably as the past participle of hang. Most contemporary usage guides insist that hanged, not hung, should be used when referring to executions: convicted killers are hanged; posters are hung. But see the usage notes.

• Hardy & Hearty
  The adjective hardy (related to hard) means daring, courageous, and capable of surviving difficult conditions. The adjective hearty (related to heart) means showing warm and heartfelt affection or providing abundant nourishment.

• Have & Of
  Use have, not of, as an auxiliary verb with could, must, should, would, may, and might. Of is a preposition.

• Heroin & Heroine
  Heroin is a highly addictive narcotic. A heroine is a woman known for her special achievements or the principal female character in a novel or play.

• Higher & Hire
  Higher (the comparative form of the adjective high) means taller or more advanced. The verb hire means to engage the services of someone (or the use of something) for a fee. As a noun, hire refers to payment for labor or the temporary use of something.

• Historic & Historical
  Historic means important, momentous, or historically significant. Historical means relating to the past.

• Hoard & Horde
  The noun hoard refers to a supply of something that has been stored up and often hidden away. As a verb, hoard means to collect and store away or to keep something to oneself. The noun horde means a crowd, throng, or swarm.

• Home & Hone
  Traditionally, a missile homes in (not hones in) on a target. Hone means to sharpen. The verb home means to move toward a goal or to be guided to a target. But some usage guides (see notes) now recognize hone in on as an acceptable alternative to home in on.

• Hoping & Hopping
  Hoping is the present-participle form of hope (to wish for). Hopping is the present-participle form of hop (like a bunny).

• Human & Humane
  The noun human refers to a person. As an adjective, human means showing the distinctive characteristics (good or bad) of people, as distinguished from animals. The adjective humane means characterized by kindness, compassion, or sympathy.

• Hurdle & Hurtle
  As a noun, hurdle refers to an obstacle or barrier. The verb hurdle means to leap over or overcome an obstacle. Hurtle is a verb that means to move with great speed or throw with great force.

I

• Imply & Infer
  A speaker implies (or suggests) something; a listener infers (or deduces).

• In & Into
  A person who is in a room may decide to move into another room. Into suggests movement.

• Incredible & Incredulous
  Incredible means unbelievable. Incredulous means skeptical or expressive of disbelief.

• Ingenious & Ingenuous
  The adjective ingenious means extremely clever--marked by inventive skill and imagination. Ingenuous means straightforward, candid, without guile.

• Intense & Intent
  The adjective intense means profound, deeply felt, or extreme in degree, strength, or size. The adjective intent means focused or concentrated. The noun intent means aim or goal.

• Its & It's
  Its is a possessive pronoun. It's is a contraction of "it is" or occasionally "it has." The apostrophe in it's is a mark of omission, not possession.

 

L

• Last & Latter
  Latter refers to the second of two persons or things that have been mentioned. When more than two have been mentioned, use last.

• Later & Latter
  Use later when referring to time. Use latter when referring to the second of two persons or things mentioned previously.

• Lay & Lie
  The verb lay means "to put"; it takes a direct object. The verb lie means "to rest"; it does not take a direct object. Don't confuse the past and past participle forms of these verbs:
• LAY (present), laid (past), and laid (past participle)
• LIE (present), lay (past), and lain (past participle)
• Leach & Leech
  The verb leach means to empty, drain, or remove. The noun leech refers to a bloodsucking worm or to a person who preys on or clings to another. As a verb, leech means to bleed with leeches or to act as a parasite.

• Lead & Led
  Led is both the past and past participle form of the verb to lead (which rhymes with bead). The noun lead (also rhymes with bead) refers to an example, an initiative, or a position at the front. The noun lead (rhymes with red) refers to the metal.

• Leave & Let
  The verb leave means go away from or put in a place. Let means permit or allow.

• Lend & Loan
  In formal usage (especially in British English), lend is a verb and loan is a noun. However, the verb loan is considered acceptable when it concerns the lending of money. See the usage notes.

• Lessen & Lesson
  The verb lessen means to decrease or reduce. The noun lesson means an instructive example, a piece of practical wisdom, or a unit of instruction.

• Liable & Libel
  The adjective liable (a three-syllable word) means subject to, obligated to, or responsible for something. The noun or verb libel (a two-syllable word) refers to a false publication that damages a person's reputation.

• Lightening & Lightning
  The noun lightening means making lighter in weight or changing to a lighter or brighter color. Lightning is the flash of light that accompanies thunder.

• Literally & Figuratively
  Literally means really or actually or in the strict sense of the word. Don't confuse it with figuratively, which means in an analogous or metaphorical sense, not in the exact sense.

• Loath & Loathe
  Loath is an adjective meaning unwilling or reluctant, and it's usually followed by to. Loathe is a verb that means to dislike intensely.

• Loose & Lose
  The adjective loose means not tight. The verb lose means not to win or not to keep.

M

• Mantel & Mantle
  The noun mantel refers to a shelf above a fireplace. The noun mantle refers to a cloak or (usually figuratively) to royal robes of state as a symbol of authority or responsibility.

• Many & Much
  Many refers to people or objects that can be counted. Much refers to a large quantity.

• Marital & Martial
  The adjective marital refers to marriage. The adjective martial refers to battle, war, or military life.

• Maybe & May Be
  Maybe is an adverb meaning perhaps. May be is a verb phrase showing possibility.

• Material & Materiel
  The noun material refers to a substance out of which something can be made. As an adjective, material means relevant and consequential. The noun materiel (also spelled matériel) refers to supplies and equipment used by an organization, especially a military unit.

• Medal, Metal, & Mettle
  The noun medal refers to a flat piece of metal stamped with an image or design. The noun metal refers to an element with a shiny surface. Metal is usually a good conductor of heat and electricity. The noun mettle means courage or spirit.

• Media & Medium
  Strictly speaking, media is the plural of medium and should be used with a plural verb. (Mediums is the correct plural when the sense of medium is a clairvoyant or fortune teller.) But consider the usage notes.

• Militate & Mitigate
  Militate is an intransitive verb that means to counteract, to have an effect against something. Mitigate is a transitive verb that means to mollify or alleviate--to make less severe or painful.

• Miner & Minor
  The noun miner refers to a person who works in a mine. The noun minor refers to someone who is under legal age or to a secondary area of academic study. As an adjective, minor means lesser or smaller.

• Moot & Mute
  The adjective moot refers to something that is debatable or of no practical importance. The adjective mute means unspoken or unable to speak. See usage notes.

• Moral & Morale
  The adjective moral (with the accent on the first syllable) means ethical or virtuous. As a noun moral refers to the lesson or principle taught by a story or event. The noun morale (second syllable accented) means spirit or attitude.

N

• Noisome & Noisy
  The adjective noisome means obnoxious, harmful, offensive to the senses (especially the sense of smell). It doesn't mean making noise (noisy).

• Nutritional & Nutritious
  The adjective nutritional means related to the process of nutrition--that is, using food to support life. The adjective nutritious means healthy to eat or nourishing.

O

• Obsolescent & Obsolete
  The adjective obsolescent refers to the process of passing out of use or usefulness--becoming obsolete. The adjective obsolete means no longer in use--outmoded in design, style, or construction.

• Official & Officious
  As an adjective, official means authorized, authoritative, or characteristic of an office. The adjective officious means meddlesome--excessively eager to offer help or advice. Officious generally carries a negative connotation.

P

• Pair, Pare, & Pear
  The verb pare means to remove, reduce, or cut back. The noun pair means a couple. The noun pear refers to the fruit.

• Palate, Palette, & Pallet
  The noun palate refers to the roof of the mouth or the sense of taste. The noun palette refers to an artist's paint board or a range of colors. The noun pallet is a straw-filled mattress or a hard bed.

• Passed & Past
  Passed is both the past and past participle form of the verb pass. Past is a noun (meaning a previous time), an adjective (meaning ago), and a preposition (meaning beyond).

• Patience & Patients
  The noun patience refers to the ability to wait or endure hardship for a long time without becoming upset. The noun patients is the plural form of patient--someone who receives medical care.

• Peace & Piece
  The noun peace means contentment or the absence of war. A piece is a unit or a portion. You may "say your piece" or "hold your peace."

• Peak, Peek, & Pique
  As a noun, peak refers to a pointed end or the top of a hill or mountain. The verb peak means to reach a maximum, and the adjective peak means being at the maximum. As both a noun and a verb, peek refers to a glance or brief look. The noun pique refers to a sense of wounded pride. As a verb, pique means to excite, arouse, or irritate.

• Perpetrate & Perpetuate
  The verb perpetrate means to commit, carry out, or bring about. The verb perpetuate means to prolong the existence of or to cause to last indefinitely.

• Perquisite & Prerequisite
  A perquisite (sometimes informally shortened to perk) is a benefit (beyond pay) that is associated with a particular job. A prerequisite is something required as a prior condition of something else.

• Persecute & Prosecute
  To persecute is to oppress, harass, or bother. To prosecute is to enforce by legal action.

• Personal & Personnel
  The adjective personal (with the accent on the first syllable) means private or individual. The noun personnel (accent on the last syllable) refers to the people employed in an organization, business, or service.

• Perspective & Prospective
  The noun perspective refers to a view or outlook. The adjective prospective means likely or expected to happen or become.

• Perverse & Perverted
  The adjective perverse generally means stubborn, cranky, wrong-headed, or incorrect. Perverted means twisted, distorted, corrupt.

• Plain & Plane
  As an adjective, plain means simple, uncomplicated, common, or obvious. The noun plain refers to a flat, usually treeless stretch of land. As a noun, plane can refer to an airplane, a tool for smoothing wood, or a level surface.

• Pole & Poll
  The noun pole refers to a long staff (for example, "fiberglass pole" or "totem pole") or to either extremity of an axis of a sphere ("North Pole"). The noun poll most often refers to the casting of votes in an election or a survey of public opinion. Likewise, the verb poll means to record votes or to ask questions in a survey.

• Pore & Pour
  As a noun, pore means a small opening, especially in an animal or plant. The verb pore means to read or study carefully. To pour is to dispense a drink or other substance.

• Precede & Proceed
  Precede means to come before. Proceed means to go forward.

• Premier & Premiere
  As an adjective, premier means first in rank or importance. The noun premier refers to a prime minister, or the head of a state, province, or territory. The noun premiere refers to the first performance (of a play, for example). Premiere is similarly used as a verb, meaning to give a first public performance.

• Prescribe & Proscribe
  The verb prescribe means to establish, direct, or lay down as a rule. The verb proscribe means to ban, forbid, or condemn.

• Principal & Principle
  As a noun, principal commonly means administrator or sum of money. As an adjective, principal means most important. The noun principle means basic truth or rule.

• Prodigy & Protégé
  The noun prodigy refers to a highly talented young person or to a wondrous event. The noun protégé refers to someone whose training or career is advanced by an influential person.

• Prostate & Prostrate
  As both a noun and an adjective, prostate refers to a male gland. As an adjective, prostrate means lying flat on the ground or reduced to extreme weakness. The verb prostrate means to put oneself into a submissive position.

Q

• Quell & Quench
  The verb quell means to suppress, pacify, or put down with force. The verb quench means to satisfy, extinguish, or cool down.

• Quiet, Quit, & Quite
  Quiet means silence. Quit means to leave. Quite means very or actually.

• Quotation & Quote
  In formal English, quotation is a noun, quote a verb. But see the usage notes.

R

• Rack & Wrack
  As verbs, rack means to torture or cause great suffering, while wrack means to wreck or cause the ruin of something. The noun rack means a frame, an instrument of torture, or a state of intense anguish. The noun wrack means destruction or wreckage. Idiomatically, we may rack our brains, have a nerve-racking experience, and be racked with guilt, but what we're inevitably headed for is wrack and ruin.

• Rain, Reign, & Rein
  All three of these words can be used as both nouns and verbs. Rain refers to precipitation (falling water). Reign refers to a period or demonstration of sovereign power. Rein refers to restraint or the means by which power is exercised.

• Raise & Rise
  Raise is (usually) a transitive verb that means lift, heighten, or promote. Rise is an intransitive verb that means to get up or increase. In the U.S. and Canada, an increase in salary is called a raise. In the U.K., it's a rise.

• Rapt & Wrapped
  The adjective rapt means carried away or wholly absorbed. Wrapped is the past tense of the verb wrap, which means to cover, enclose, or bundle.

• Rational & Rationale
  The adjective rational means having or exercising the ability to reason. The noun rationale refers to an explanation or basic reason.

• Ravage & Ravish
  The verb ravage means to ruin, devastate, or destroy. The noun ravage (often in the plural) means grievous damage or destruction. The verb ravish means to rape, carry away by force, or overwhelm with emotion.

• Recourse & Resource
  Recourse is a person or thing that one turns or applies to for help. Resource is a supply that can be drawn on when needed.

• Regretful & Regrettable
  The adjective regretful refers to people and means full of regret. Regrettable applies to incidents or situations and means causing or deserving regret.

• Reluctant & Reticent
  The adjective reluctant means to feel or show hesitation, aversion, or unwillingness. The adjective reticent means inclined to be silent or restrained in expression or appearance.

• Respectively & Respectfully
  Respectfully means with respect. Respectively means one by one in the order designated or mentioned.

• Restive & Restless
  The adjective restive means difficult to control or impatient in the face of restraint or authority. The adjective restless means unable to rest, relax, or remain still. Unlike restive, restless is not associated with external restraint.

• Review & Revue
  The noun revue refers to a musical or theatrical production. As both a noun and a verb, review has the sense of inspecting, surveying, or critically evaluating.

• Riffle & Rifle
  The verb riffle (pronounced with a short i) means to shuffle (playing cards) or to flick or leaf through something (such as the pages of a book or magazine). The verb rifle means to rob, ransack, or search with the intention of stealing.

• Role & Roll
  A role is a character or part played by a performer. Roll has many senses, including a portion of bread and a list of names of persons belonging to a group.

S

• Sensual & Sensuous
  The adjective sensual means affecting or gratifying the physical senses. Sensuous means pleasing to the senses, especially those involved in aesthetic pleasure, as of art or music. But as explained in the usage notes, this distinction is often overlooked.

• Serve & Service
  In general practice, people are served, things are serviced.

• Set & Sit
  The transitive verb set means to put or to place; it takes a direct object, and its principal forms are set, set, and set. The intransitive verb sit means to be seated; it does not take a direct object, and its principal forms are sit, sat, and sat.

• Shall & Will
  In contemporary American English, the auxiliary verb shall is rarely used. In British English, shall and will are often used interchangeably with no difference of meaning in most circumstances. Internationally, will is now the standard choice for expressing future plans and expectations. However, in first-person questions shall is often used to express politeness, and in legal statements, shall is used with a third-person subject for stating requirements. See the usage notes.

• Shear & Sheer
  The verb shear means to cut or clip. As a noun, shear refers to the act, process, or fact of cutting or clipping. The adjective sheer means fine, transparent, or complete. As an adverb, sheer means completely or altogether.

• Should & Would
  Use should to express an obligation. Use would to express a customary action.

• Simple & Simplistic
  The adjective simple means plain, ordinary, uncomplicated. The adjective simplistic is a pejorative word meaning overly simplified--characterized by extreme and often misleading simplicity.

• Sometime, Some time, & Sometimes
  Sometime means at an indefinite or unstated time in the future. Some time means a period of time. Sometimes means occasionally, now and then.

• Stanch & Staunch
  The verb stanch means to check or stop the flow of something. The adjective staunch means strong, substantial, or steadfast. Although the two words are sometimes used interchangeably, stanch is more common than staunch as the spelling of the verb, and staunch is more common than stanch as the spelling of the adjective.

• Stationary & Stationery
  The adjective stationary means remaining in one place. The noun stationery means writing materials. Tip: associate the er in stationery with the er in letter and paper.

• Statue & Statute
  A statue is a carved or molded figure. A statute is a rule or law.

• Steal & Steel
  The verb steal means to take someone else's property without right or permission. Steal can also mean to move secretly. As both a noun and an adjective, steel refers to a hard alloy of iron and carbon. Used figuratively, steel means hard, strong, and tough. As a verb, steel means to strengthen.

• Suit, Suite, & Sweet
  As a noun, suit (pronounced "sewt") means a costume, a set of garments, a claim in court, or a set of playing cards bearing the same mark. The noun suite (pronounced "sweet") means a musical composition, a staff of attendants, or a set of things (such as pieces of furniture) that form a unit. (In parts of Canada, suite is also used as a synonym for apartment or flat.) The adjective sweet means pleasing to the mind or senses, especially the sense of taste.

T

• Tack & Tact
  The verb tack means to attach, add, or change course. As a noun, tack refers to a small nail, the direction of a ship, a course of action, or a sticky quality or condition. The noun tact means diplomacy or skill in dealing with others.

• Tail & Tale
  Both a noun and a verb, tail has several meanings, including the rear part of an animal or vehicle. The noun tale refers to a report or story.

• Team & Teem
  The noun team refers to a group of people working or playing together. The verb teem means to be full or prolific.

• Temerity & Timidity
  The noun temerity means daring or recklessness. In contrast, the noun timidity means fearfulness.

• Than & Then
  Use than to make a comparison. Use then when referring to time.

• Their, There, & They're
  Their is the possessive form of they. There is an adverb (meaning at that place) and a pronoun used to start a sentence. They're is a contraction of they are.

• Threw, Through, & Thru
  Threw is the simple past tense of the verb throw. ("Buddy threw the ball.") Through can function as an adjective, adverb, or preposition, each with a variety of meanings. Through often suggests a passage—from start to finish, or from point A to point B. ("Buddy walked through the museum.") Thru is an informal spelling of through--more appropriate in a text message than in a formal essay or report.

• Tide & Tied
  The noun tide refers to the rise and fall of the level of the sea. Tied is the past form of the verb tie (to fasten or attach).

• To, Too, & Two
  The preposition to refers to a place, direction, or position. To is also used before the verb in an infinitive. The adverb too means also or excessively. Two refers to the number 2.

• Tortuous & Torturous
  The adjective tortuous means winding, crooked, complex, or devious, marked by repeated twists and turns. The adjective torturous means painful, causing torture, or extremely slow and difficult.

• Track & Tract
  As a noun, track refers to a path, route, or course. The verb track means to travel, pursue, or follow. The noun tract refers to an expanse of land or water, a system of organs and tissues in the body, or a pamphlet containing a declaration or appeal.

• Troop & Troupe
  As a noun, troop refers to a group of soldiers or a collection of people or things. As a verb, troop means to move or spend time together. The noun troupe refers specifically to a group of theatrical performers.

• Turbid, Turbulent, & Turgid
  Turbid means thick, muddy, or cloudy. Turbulent means violently agitated or causing unrest. Turgid means swollen, bombastic, or pompous.

U

• Urban & Urbane
  The adjective urban means related to or characteristic of a city. The adjective urbane means sophisticated, refined, or worldly wise.

V

• Vain, Vane, & Vein
  The adjective vain means conceited or fruitless. The noun vane refers to a device for showing wind direction. The noun vein refers to a blood vessel, a streak, or a crack.

• Vale & Veil
  The noun vale, another word for valley, appears in the expression "vale of tears." The noun veil refers to a length of cloth worn by women over the head and shoulders. As a verb, veil means to cover, conceal, or disguise.

• Vary & Very
  The verb vary means to differ, change, or give variety to something. The adverb very means truly, absolutely, or extremely.

• Venal & Venial
  The adjective venal means open to bribery or marked by corrupt dealings. The adjective venial (as in "venial sin") means minor or readily forgiven.

• Veracious & Voracious
  The adjective veracious means honest or truthful. The adjective voracious means greedy, insatiable, or extremely hungry.

W

• Wade & Weighed
  The verb wade means to walk through water or move through any substance that offers resistance. Weighed is the past form of the verb weigh (to measure, balance, or choose).

• Waist & Waste
  The noun waist refers to the narrow part of the body between the ribs and hips. The verb waste means to use or spend thoughtlessly. As a noun, waste means unwanted material or barren land.

• Waive & Wave
  The verb waive means to defer, dispense with, or give up (a claim or right) voluntarily. The verb wave means to make a signal with the hand or to move freely back and forth. The phrasal verb wave off means to dismiss, refuse, or cancel. As a noun, wave refers to a ridge of water, a surge, or a rising trend.

• Ware, Wear, & Where
  The noun ware means merchandise or (usually in the plural) things of the same kind that are for sale. The verb wear has several meanings, including to have or carry on the person ("wear a coat") and to diminish by constant use ("wear a hole in your pocket"). The adverb where refers to a place.

• Way & Weigh
  The noun way has several meanings, including a route, a course of action, a method, a direction, and a condition. The verb weigh means to determine the weight of something, to measure out, or to consider carefully.

• Weather & Whether
  The noun weather refers to the state of the atmosphere at a given time and place (hot, cold, rainy, cloudy, etc.). Whether is a conjunction used in questions involving alternatives.

• Were, We're, & Where
  Were is a past form of the verb to be. We're is a contraction of we are. Where refers to a place.

• Wet & Whet
  The adjective wet means consisting of or soaked with liquid. The verb whet means to sharpen, excite, or stimulate. Curiosity and appetites are whetted.

• Which & Who
  The pronoun who refers to people; which refers to things.

• Who & Whom
  Use who when a sentence requires a subject pronoun (equivalent to he or she). In formal English, use whom when a sentence requires an object pronoun (equivalent to him or her). Contemporary usage, however, increasingly favors the use of who in both cases.

• Whoever & Whomever
  In the manner of who and whom, use whoever when a sentence requires a subject pronoun (equivalent to he or she). In formal English, use whomever when a sentence requires an object pronoun (equivalent to him or her). Contemporary usage, however, increasingly favors the use of whoever in both cases.

• Whose & Who's
  Whose is the possessive form of who. Who's is the contraction of who is.

Y

• Young & Youthful
  Although these two adjectives have similar meanings, young tends to be a neutral statement of fact (in an early stage of life) while youthful often suggests the positive qualities of youth (such as good health, freshness, and vitality) and almost always refers to people, not things.

• Your & You're
  Your is the possessive form of you. You're is the contraction of you are.

532. ENGLISH - DIALECT

DIALECT

Yaasa

 

Definition:

A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a way of speaking that differs from the standard variety of the language. Adjective: dialectal.
The scientific study of dialects is known as dialectology, commonly regarded as a subfield of sociolinguistics.

Etymology:

From the Greek, "speech"

Observations:

• "It is sometimes thought that only a few people speak regional dialects. Many restrict the term to rural forms of speech--as when they say that 'dialects are dying out these days.' But dialects are not dying out. Country dialects are not as widespread as they once were, indeed, but urban dialects are now on the increase, as cities grow and large numbers of immigrants take up residence. . . .
  
  "Some people think of dialects as sub-standard varieties of a language. spoken only by low-status groups--illustrated by such comments as 'He speaks correct English, without a trace of dialect.' Comments of this kind fail to recognize that standard English is as much a dialect as any other variety--though a dialect of a rather special kind, because it is one to which society has given extra prestige. Everyone speaks a dialect--whether urban or rural, standard or non-standard, upper class or lower class."
  
  
• Regional and Social Dialects
  "The classic example of a dialect is the regional dialect: the distinct form of a language spoken in a certain geographical area. For example, we might speak of Ozark dialects or Appalachian dialects, on the grounds that inhabitants of these regions have certain distinct linguistic features that differentiate them from speakers of other forms of English. We can also speak of a social dialect: the distinct form of a language spoken by members of a specific socioeconomic class, such as the working-class dialects in England."
  
  
• "Prestige" Dialects in New York City
  "In the earlier history of New York City, New England influence and New England immigration preceded the influx of Europeans. The prestige dialect which is reflected in the speech of cultivated Atlas informants shows heavy borrowings from eastern New England. There has been a long-standing tendency for New Yorkers to borrow prestige dialects from other regions, rather than develop a prestige dialect of their own. In the current situation, we see that the New England influence has retreated, and in its place, a new prestige dialect has been borrowed from northern and midwestern speech patterns. We have seen that for most of our informants, the effort to escape identification as a New Yorker by one's own speech provides a motivating force for phonological shifts and changes."
  
  
• Dialect in Writing
  "Do not attempt to use dialect [when writing] unless you are a devoted student of the tongue you hope to reproduce. If you use dialect, be consistent. . . . The best dialect writers, by and large, are economical of their talents, they use the minimum, not the maximum, of deviation from the norm, thus sparing the reader as well as convincing him."
  
  

531. ENGLISH - Displacement

Displacement

Definition:

In linguistics, a characteristic of language that allows users to talk about things and events other than those occurring in the here and now.
Displacement is one of the distinct properties of human language. Its significance as one of the 13 (later 16) "design features of language" was noted by American linguist Charles Hockett in 1960.

Examples and Observations:

• "When your pet cat comes home and stands at your feet calling meow, you are likely to understand this message as relating to that immediate time and place. If you ask your cat where it has been and what it has been up to, you'll probably get the same meow response. Animal communication seems to be designed exclusively for this moment, here and now. It cannot effectively be used to relate events that are far removed in time and place. When your dog says GRRR, it means GRRR, right now, because dogs don't seem to be capable of communicating GRRR, last night, over in the park. In contrast, human language users are normally capable of producing messages equivalent to GRRR, last night, over in the park, and then going on to say In fact, I'll be going back tomorrow for some more. Humans can refer to past and future time. This property of human language is called displacement. . . . Indeed, displacement allows us to talk about things and places (e.g. angels, fairies, Santa Claus, Superman, heaven, hell) whose existence we cannot even be sure of."
  
  
• A Characteristic of All Human Languages
  "Consider the range of things that you can say, such as a sentence like this:

Hey, kids, your mother left last night, but don't worry, she'll be back when she's come to terms with the whole notion of mortality.

(This was said tongue in cheek by a friend, but it's a useful example.) By uttering certain sounds in a given order, the speaker of this sentence is addressing particular individuals (the kids), referring to a particular individual who isn't there (their mother), referring to times that are not the present (last night and whenever the mother comes to terms), and referring to abstract ideas (worry and mortality). Let me point out in particular that the ability to refer to things that are not physically present (objects here, and times) is known as displacement. Both displacement and the ability to refer to abstractions are common to all human languages."

Achieving Displacement
"Different languages accomplish displacement in different ways. English has a system of auxiliary verbs (e.g., will, was, were, had) and affixes (e.g., pre- in predates; -ed in dated) to signal when an event occurred relative to the moment of speaking or relative to other events."

•  
• Displacement and the Origins of Language
  "Compare these:

There's a mosquito buzzing in my ear.
Nothing is more irritating than a buzzing sound.

In the first, there's a particular buzzing in the here and now. In the second, there may be, but there needn't be--I could say this in reacting to a story about something that happened years ago. In talking about symbolism and words, people often make far too much of arbitrariness--the absence of any relationship between a word's form and its meaning. . . . [W]hen it comes to how language began, displacement is a factor far more important than arbitrariness."
(Derek Bickerton, Adam's Tongue: How Humans Made Language, How Language Made Humans. Hill and Wang, 2009)


"[M]ental time travel is critical to language. . . . Language . . . may have evolved primarily to enable humans to share their memories, plans, and stories, enhancing social cohension and creating a common culture."

• One Exception: The Dance of the Honeybee
  "This displacement, which we take utterly for granted, is one of the most momentous differences between human languages and the signalling systems of all other species. . . .
  
  "There is just one striking exception. A honeybee scout which has discovered a source of nectar returns to its hive and performs a dance, watched by other bees. This bee dance tells the watching bees what direction the nectar lies in, how far away it is, and how much nectar there is. And this is displacement: the dancing bee is passing on information about a site which it visited some time ago and which it now cannot see, and the watching bees respond by flying off to locate the nectar. Startling though it is, the bee dance is, so far at least, absolutely unique in the non-human world: no other creatures, not even apes, can communicate anything of the sort, and even the bee dance is severely limited in its expressive powers: it cannot cope with the slightest novelty."
  
  

530. ENGLISH - Duality of patterning

Duality of patterning

Definition:

A characteristic of human language whereby speech can be analyzed on two levels: (1) as made up of meaningless elements (i.e., a limited inventory of sounds), and (2) as made up of meaningful elements (i.e., a virtually limitless inventory of words).
The significance of duality of patterning as one of the 13 (later 16) "design features of language" was noted by American linguist Charles F. Hockett in 1960. (See Examples and Observations, below.)

Examples and Observations:

• "Human language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. This property is called duality (or 'double articulation'). In speech production, we have a physical level at which we can produce individual sounds, like n, b and i. As individual sounds, none of these discrete forms has any intrinsic meaning. In a particular combination such as bin, we have another level producing a meaning that is different from the meaning of the combination in nib. So, at one level, we have distinct sounds, and, at another level, we have distinct meanings. This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language because, with a limited set of discrete sounds, we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning."
  
  
• Duality of Language and Animal Communication
  "The level of sounds and syllables is the province of phonology, while that of meaningful elements is the province of grammar and semantics.

Has this kind of duality any analogue in animal communication systems? . . . The short answer to [that] question seems to be no."


"It is hard to find clear and uncontroversial examples of duality of patterning outside our own species. But let us say that we can find them--and there is evidence, from the way some animals like birds and dolphins manipulate melodies, that this might be true.

This would mean that duality of patterning is a necessary condition for a communication system to be a human language, but that by itself it may not be enough.

There is no human language without duality of patterning."

• Hockett on Duality of Patterning
  "[Charles] Hockett developed the phrase 'duality of patterning' to express the fact that discrete units of language at one level (such as the level of sounds) can be combined to create different kinds of units at a different level (such as words). . . .

According to Hockett, duality of patterning was probably the last feature to emerge in human language, and it was critical in separating human language from other kinds of primate communication. . . .

"The most difficult bit to figure out is how and when duality of patterning could have emerged.

How did individuals manage to isolate various bits of calls so that they could be endlessly combined into arbitrary symbols?

Hockett thought that if two calls each had two distinct parts, then perhaps something in the blending process might alert individuals to the existence of discrete units.

If you can combine breakfast and lunch into brunch, then does that alert you to the possibility that br is a distinct unit of sound that is combinable with other distinct units of sound?

Solving this puzzle remains one of the thorniest of the problems in determining how language became possible."

• The Structures of Phonology and Syntax
  "The question of whether the structures of phonology and syntax are separate and distinct is relevant to the notion of duality of patterning. . . .

The division between meaningful and meaningless elements is less sharp than it appears, and the fact that words are composed of phonemes is arguably just a special case of the pervasive hierarchical structure that is present in language. . . .

"Of all Hockett's design features, duality of patterning is the most misrepresented and misunderstood; in particular, it is frequently conflated with or linked to productivity.

Hockett seems to have regarded duality of patterning as the single most important breakthrough in the evolution of language, yet he himself was unsure whether to ascribe duality of patterning to the dance of the honeybee.