623. B. Ph TEXT V – 4 Project Report

V – 4    Project  Report

General Guidelines

Purpose of a report: writing to be read

A key thing to keep in mind right through your report writing process is that a report is written to be read, by someone else.

This is the central goal of report-writing. A report which is written for the sake of being written has very little value.

Before you start writing your report, you need to have in mind the intended audience.

In the narrowest of possibilities, your report is meant for reading by yourselves, and by your advisor/instructor, and perhaps by your evaluation committee. This has value, but only short-term. The next broader possibility is that your report is readable by your peers or your juniors down the line. This has greater value since someone else can continue on your work and improve it, or learn from your work. In the best case possibility, your report is of publishable quality. That is, readable and useful for the technical community in general.

Overall approach: top-down

Take a top-down approach to writing the report (also applies to problem solving in general). This can proceed in roughly three stages of continual refinement of details.

1. First write the section-level outline,
2. Then the subsection-level outline, and
3. Then a paragraph-level outline. The paragraph-level outline would more-or-less be like a presentation with bulleted points. It incorporates the flow of ideas.

Once you have the paragraph-level flow of ideas, you can easily convert that into a full report, by writing out the flow of ideas in full sentences.

While doing the paragraph-level outline, think also about (a) figures, (b) tables, and         (c) graphs you will include as part of the report at various stages. You will find that many things can be better explained by using simple figures at appropriate places.

Another thing to nail-down while doing the paragraph-level outline is the terminology you will be using. For instance, names of various protocols/algorithms/steps in your solution. Or names/symbols for mathematical notation.

The overall approach also includes multiple stages of refinement, and taking feedback from others (peers/advisor/instructor). I will talk about these in more detail after talking about the overall report structure.

Structure of a report

The following should roughly be the structure of a report. Note that these are just guidelines, not rules. You have to use your intelligence in working out the details of your specific writing.

Title and abstract: These are the most-read parts of a report. This is how you attract attention to your writing. The title should reflect what you have done and should bring out any eye-catching factor of your work, for good impact.

The abstract should be short, generally within about 2 paragraphs (250 words or so total). The abstract should contain the essence of the report, based on which the reader decides whether to go ahead with reading the report or not. It can contain the following in varying amounts of detail as is appropriate: main motivation, main design point, essential difference from previous work, methodology, and some eye-catching results if any.

Introduction: Most reports start with an introduction section. This section should answer the following questions (not necessarily in that order, but what is given below is a logical order). After title/abstract introduction and conclusions are the two mainly read parts of a report.

What is the setting of the problem?

This is, in other words, the background. In some cases, this may be implicit, and in some cases, merged with the motivation below.

What exactly is the problem you are trying to solve?

This is the problem statement.

Why is the problem important to solve?

This is the motivation. In some cases, it may be implicit in the background, or the problem statement itself.

Is the problem still unsolved?

The constitutes the statement of past/related work crisply.

Why is the problem difficult to solve?

This is the statement of challenges. In some cases, it may be implicit in the problem statement. In others, you may have to say explicitly as to why the problem is worthy of a BTech/MTech/PhD, or a semester project, as the case may be.

How have you solved the problem?

Here you state the essence of your approach. This is of course expanded upon later, but it must be stated explicitly here.

What are the conditions under which your solution is applicable?

This is a statement of assumptions.

What are the main results?

You have to present the main summary of the results here.

What is the summary of your contributions?

This in some cases may be implicit in the rest of the introduction. Sometimes it helps to state contributions explicitly.

How is the rest of the report organized?

Here you include a paragraph on the flow of ideas in the rest of the report. For any report beyond 4-5 pages, this is a must.

The introduction is nothing but a shorter version of the rest of the report, and in many cases the rest of the report can also have the same flow. Think of the rest of the report as an expansion of some of the points in the introduction.

Which of the above bullets are expanded into separate sections (perhaps even multiple sections) depends very much on the problem.

Background: This is expanded upon into a separate section if there is sufficient background which the general reader must understand before knowing the details of your work. It is usual to state that "the reader who knows this background can skip this section" while writing this section.

Past/related work: It is common to have this as a separate section, explaining why what you have done is something novel. Here, you must try to think of dimensions of comparison of your work with other work. For instance, you may compare in terms of functionality, in terms of performance, and/or in terms of approach. Even within these, you may have multiple lines of comparison -- functionality-1, functionality-2, metric-1, metric-2, etc.

Technical sections: The main body of the report may be divided into multiple sections as the case may be. You may have different sections which delve into different aspects of the problem. The organization of the report here is problem specific. You may also have a separate section for statement of design methodology, or experimental methodology, or proving some lemmas in a theoretical paper.

The technical section is the most work-specific, and hence is the least described here. However, it makes sense to mention the following main points:

Outlines/flow: For sections which may be huge, with many subsections, it is appropriate to have a rough outline of the section at the beginning of that section. Make sure that the flow is maintained as the reader goes from one section to another. There should be no abrupt jumps in ideas.

Use of figures: The cliche "a picture is worth a thousand words" is appropriate here. Spend time thinking about pictures. Wherever necessary, explain all aspects of a figure (ideally, this should be easy), and do not leave the reader wondering as to what the connection between the figure and the text is.

Terminology: Define each term/symbol before you use it, or right after its first use. Stick to a common terminology throughout the report.

Results: This is part of the set of technical sections, and is usually a separate section for experimental/design papers. You have to answer the following questions in this section:

Future work: This section in some cases is combined along with the "conclusions" section. Here you state aspects of the problem you have not considered and possibilities for further extensions.

Conclusions: Readers usually read the title, abstract, introduction, and conclusions. In that sense, this section is quite important. You have to crisply state the main take-away points from your work. How has the reader become smarter, or how has the world become a better place because of your work?

622. B. Ph TEXT V – 3 Corporate Training Public Speaking Skills

V – 3   Corporate Training Public Speaking Skills

Presentations

There are three basic purposes for giving oral presentations:

1. To inform
2. To persuade
3. To build good will

 

Definitions

• The process of offering for consideration or display
• A social introduction, as of a person at court
• A demonstration, lecture, or welcoming speech
• A manner or style of speaking, instructing or putting oneself forward
• The manner of presenting, esp the organization of visual details to create an overall impression
• The formal introduction of a person, as into society or at court; debut

There are six types of presentations:^]

1. Informative
2. Analyzing
3. Persuasive
4. Instructional
5. Arousing
6. Decision Making

 

Presentations and reports are ways of communicating ideas and information to a group.

But unlike a report, a presentation carries the speaker's personality better and allows immediate interaction between all the participants.

A report is the orderly presentation of the results of the research which seeks truth and interprets facts into constructive ideas and suggestions.

A report is normally built on research that finds, develops, or substantiates knowledge. Once all the facts are collected, they are then organized and presented in a report designed to meet a need for specific information.

Audience

Audiences can be classified into four basic categories:

1] Captives        2] Pragmatists            3] Socially motivated   4] Committed

1.       Evaluative: Makes a judgment about the worth, goodness, or appropriateness of the other person's statement.

2.      Interpretive: Paraphrasing to explain what another person's statement mean.

3.      Supportive: Attempt to assist or bolster the other communicator

4.      Probing: Attempt to gain additional information, continue the discussion, or clarify a point.

5.      Understanding: Attempt to discover completely what the other communicator means by her statements.

Visuals

Types of Presentations

1.      Informative

o    Time

o    Place

o    Cause and Effect

o    Logical Order

2.     Instructional

3.     Arousing

4.     Persuasive

5.     Decision-making

A presentation is created in the same manner as a report; however, it adds one additional element — The Human Element.

A good presentation contains at least four elements:

• Content — It contains information that people need. But unlike reports, which are read at the reader's own pace, presentations must account for how much information the audience can absorb in one sitting.
• Structure — It has a logical beginning, middle, and end. It must be sequenced and paced so that the audience can understand it. Where as reports have appendices and footnotes to guide the reader, the speaker must be careful not to loose the audience when wandering from the main point of the presentation.
• Packaging — It must be well prepared. A report can be reread and portions skipped over, but with a presentation, the audience is at the mercy of a presenter.
• Human Element — A good presentation will be remembered much more than a good report because it has a person attached to it. However, you must still analyze the audience's needs to determine if they would be better met if a report was sent instead.

 

The Voice

The voice is probably the most valuable tool of the presenter. It carries most of the content that the audience takes away. One of the oddities of speech is that we can easily tell others what is wrong with their voice, e.g. too fast, too high, too soft, etc., but we have trouble listening to and changing our own voices.

There are five main terms used for defining vocal qualities.

• Volume: How loud the sound is. The goal is to be heard without shouting. Good speakers lower their voice to draw the audience in, and raise it to make a point.
• Tone: The characteristics of a sound. An airplane has a different sound than leaves being rustled by the wind. A voice that carries fear can frighten the audience, while a voice that carries laughter can get the audience to smile.
• Pitch: How high or low a note is. Pee Wee Herman has a high voice, Barbara Walters has a moderate voice, while James Earl Jones has a low voice.
• Pace: This is how long a sound lasts. Talking too fast causes the words and syllables to be short, while talking slowly lengthens them. Varying the pace helps to maintain the audience's interest.
• Color: Both projection and tone variance can be practiced by taking the line “This new policy is going to be exciting” and saying it first with surprise, then with irony, then with grief, and finally with anger. The key is to over-act. Remember Shakespeare's words “All the world's a stage” — presentations are the opening night on Broadway!

The Body

Your body communicates different impressions to the audience. People not only listen to you, they also watch you. Slouching tells them you are indifferent or you do not care... even though you might care a great deal! On the other hand, displaying good posture tells your audience that you know what you are doing and you care deeply about it. Also, a good posture helps you to speak more clearly and effective.

Throughout you presentation, display.:

• Eye contact: This helps to regulate the flow of communication. It signals interest in others and increases the speaker's credibility. Speakers who make eye contact open the flow of communication and convey interest, concern, warmth, and credibility.
• Facial Expressions: Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits happiness, friendliness, warmth, and liking. So, if you smile frequently you will be perceived as more likable, friendly, warm, and approachable. Smiling is often contagious and others will react favorably. They will be more comfortable around you and will want to listen to you more.
• Gestures: If you fail to gesture while speaking, you may be perceived as boring and stiff. A lively speaking style captures attention, makes the material more interesting, and facilitates understanding.
• Posture and body orientation: You communicate numerous messages by the way you talk and move. Standing erect and leaning forward communicates that you are approachable, receptive, and friendly. Interpersonal closeness results when you and your audience face each other. Speaking with your back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling should be avoided as it communicates disinterest.
• Proximity: Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for interaction with others. You should look for signals of discomfort caused by invading other's space. Some of these are: rocking, leg swinging, tapping, and gaze aversion. Typically, in large rooms, space invasion is not a problem. In most instances there is too much distance. To counteract this, move around the room to increase interaction with your audience. Increasing the proximity enables you to make better eye contact and increases the opportunities for others to speak.
• Voice. One of the major criticisms of speakers is that they speak in a monotone voice. Listeners perceive this type of speaker as boring and dull. People report that they learn less and lose interest more quickly when listening to those who have not learned to modulate their voices.

Active Listening

Good speakers not only inform their audience, they also listen to them. By listening, you know if they are understanding the information and if the information is important to them. Active listening is NOT the same as hearing! Hearing is the first part and consists of the perception of sound.

Listening, the second part, involves an attachment of meaning to the aural symbols that are perceived. Passive listening occurs when the receiver has little motivation to listen carefully. Active listening with a purpose is used to gain information, to determine how another person feels, and to understand others. Some good traits of effective listeners are:

• Spend more time listening than talking (but of course, as a presenter, you will be doing most of the talking).
• Do not finish the sentence of others.
• Do not answer questions with questions.
• Aware of biases. We all have them. We need to control them.
• Never daydream or become preoccupied with their own thoughts when others talk.
• Let the other speaker talk. Do not dominate the conversation.
• Plan responses after others have finished speaking...NOT while they are speaking. Their full concentration is on what others are saying, not on what they are going to respond with.
• Provide feedback but do not interrupt incessantly.
• Analyze by looking at all the relevant factors and asking open-ended questions. Walk the person through analysis (summarize).
• Keep the conversation on what the speaker says...NOT on what interest them.

 

Preparing the Presentation

To fail to prepare is to prepare to fail

• What is the purpose of the presentation?
• Who will be attending?
• What does the audience already know about the subject?
• What is the audience's attitude towards me (e.g. hostile, friendly)?

• Timeline: Arranged in sequential order.
• Climax: The main points are delivered in order of increasing importance.
• Problem/Solution: A problem is presented, a solution is suggested, and benefits are then given.
• Classification: The important items are the major points.
• Simple to complex: Ideas are listed from the simplest to the most complex. Can also be done in reverse order.

Habits

 

Slides

 

Tips and Techniques For Great Presentations

 

1] “No one can make you feel inferior, unless you agree with it.”

2] Do not put both hands in your pockets for long periods of time.

3] Do not wave a pointer around in the air

4] Do not lean on the podium for long periods.

5] Speak clearly and loudly enough for all to hear.

6] Do not speak in a monotone voice. Use inflection to emphasize your main points.

7] Tell them what name and title you prefer to be called.

8] Listen intently to comments and opinions.

9] Circulate around the room as you speak.

10] List and discuss your objectives at the beginning of the presentation.

11] Vary your techniques (lecture, discussion, debate, films, slides, reading, etc.)

12] Get to the presentation before your audience arrives; be the last one to leave.

12] Consider the time of day and how long you have got for your talk.

13] Remember — it is better to finish slightly early than to overrun.

14] Create Better Presentations