Friday, 16 August 2013

468. IELTS - Word Histories 2



Word Histories 2

Lesson 1.

Here are ten new words to enhance your word power. When you have finished reading the history of each word, complete the self-tests.

1. oscillate (os"* lat') In ancient Rome, the grape growers hung little images with the face of Bacchus, the god of wine, on their vines. Since the Latin word for face is "os," a little face would be called an "oscillum." Because the images swung in the wind, some students of language concluded that the Latin verb "oscillare" came from a description of this motion. Most scholars have declined to make this connection, saying only that our present word "oscillate," to swing to and fro, is derived from Latin "oscillare," to swing, which in turn comes from "oscillum," a swing.

2. nabob (na"bob) The Mogul emperors, who ruled India from the sixteenth until the middle of the nineteenth century, delegated authority to men who acted as governors of various parts of India. To the native Indians, such a ruler was known as a "nawwab," deputy. The word was changed by the Europeans into "nabob." The nabobs were supposed to tithe money to the central government, but some of the nabobs withheld the money, and thereby became enormously wealthy. From their fortunes came the European custom of using the word "nabob" to refer to a
person, especially a European, who had attained great wealth in India or another country of the East. The usage spread to England, and today we use the term to describe any very wealthy or powerful person.

3. pander (pan"d*r) "Pander," to act as a go-between in amorous intrigues or to act as a pimp or procurer or to cater basely, comes from the medieval story of Troilus and Cressida. In his retelling, Chaucer describes how the love-stricken Troilus calls upon his friend Pandarus, kin to Cressida, to aid him in his quest for her love. Much of Chaucer's tale is devoted to the different means used by Pandarus to help Troilus win his love. Shakespeare later recycled the same legend. As the story gained in popularity the name "Pandarus" was changed in English to
"pandare" and then to "pander." The noun now has the negative connotation of pimp or procurer for illicit sexual intercourse.

4. pedagogue (ped"* gog', -gôg') Wealthy Greek families kept a special slave to supervise their sons. The slave's responsibilities included accompanying the boys as they traveled to and from school and walked in the public streets. To describe a slave's chores, the Greeks coined the term "paidagogos," a leader of boys. Occasionally, when the slave was an educated man captured in warfare and sold into slavery, the slave also tutored his charges. From the Greek word we derived the English word "pedagogue," teacher or educator.

5. quack (kwak) Noticing how the raucous shouts of the charlatans selling useless concoctions sounded like the strident quacks of ducks, the sixteenth-century Dutch called these charlatans "quacksalvers"—literally, ducks quacking over their salves. The term quickly spread through Europe. The English shortened it to "quack," and used it to describe any fraudulent or ignorant pretender to medical skills, the meaning we retain today.

6. nepotism (nep"* tiz'*m) This word for patronage bestowed or favoritism shown on the basis of family relationships, as in business or politics, can be traced to the popes of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. To increase their power, these men surrounded themselves with people they knew would be loyal—members of their own family. Among the most popular candidates were the
popes' own illegitimate sons, called "nephews," from the Latin "nepos," a descendant, as a mark of respect. Eventually the term "nepotism" came to mean favoritism to all family members, not just nephews.

7. pompadour (pom"p* dôr', -d»r') Sheltered by a wealthy family and educated as though she were their own daughter, at twenty the exquisite Jeanne Antoinette Poisson Le Normant d'étioles married her protector's nephew and began her reign over the world of Parisian fashion. Soon after, King Louis XV took her as his mistress, established her at the court of Versailles, and gave her the estate of Pompadour. The Marquise de Pompadour created a large and high-swept hairstyle memorialized by her name. Though it has been somewhat modified, the style is still known by her name.

8. nostrum (nos"tr*m) The word "nostrum," a patent or quack medicine, became very current around the time of the Great Plague in the mid-seventeenth century. Doctors were helpless to combat the disease, so charlatans and quacks scurried to fill the gap, flooding the market with their own "secret"—and useless— concoctions. To make their medicines seem more effective, they labeled them with the Latin word "nostrum." The term came to be used as a general word for any quack medicine. Ironically, "nostrum" means our own, as in "nostrum remedium," our own remedy; thus it makes no claims at all for the remedy's effectiveness.

9. narcissism (när"s* siz'*m) The word "narcissism," inordinate fascination with oneself, comes from the Greek myth of Narcissus. According to one version of the legend, an exceptionally handsome young man fell in love with his own image reflected in a pool. Because he was unable to embrace his image, he died from unrequited love. According to another version, Narcissus fell in love with his identical twin sister. After her death, he sat and stared at his own reflection in the pool until he died from grief.

10. nepenthe (ni pen"the) According to Greek legend, when Paris kidnapped Helen and took her to Troy, he wanted her to forget her previous life. In Homer's version of the tale, Paris gave Helen a drug thought to cause loss of memory. The drug was called "nepenthes." The word has come down to us with its meaning intact: anything inducing a pleasurable sensation of forgetfulness.

True/False
In the space provided, write T if the definition of the numbered word is true or F if it is false.

T or F

1. nepenthe                  remembrance _____
2. nepotism                  impartiality _____
3. pander                     procurer _____
4. pompadour              crewcut _____
5. oscillate                   swing _____
6. pedagogue               teacher _____
7. narcissism                self-love _____
8. nabob                      pauper _____
9. nostrum                   patent medicine _____
10. quack                     expert _____

Defining Words

Define each of the following words.

1. pompadour ____________________________________________________
2. nepenthe _____________________________________________________
3. oscillate ______________________________________________________
4. nostrum _______________________________________________________
5. quack ________________________________________________________
6. nabob ________________________________________________________
7. pander ________________________________________________________
8. nepotism  ______________________________________________________
9. pedagogue ____________________________________________________
10. narcissism ____________________________________________________

Lesson 2.

Each of these ten words beginning with the letter "p" has a particularly captivating tale behind it.
Read the stories, then complete the two tests at the end of the lesson.

11. palaver (p* lav"*r, -lä"v*r) The word "palaver" derives ultimately from the Greek word "parabola," comparison, literally a placing beside. From this came English "parable," a story that makes comparisons. In Latin the word came to mean speech, talk, word. Later, Portuguese traders carried the term to Africa in the form "palavra" and used it to refer to the long talks with native chiefs required by local custom. English traders picked up the word in the eighteenth century, spelling it as we do today. The word retains its last meaning, a long parley, especially one with people indigenous to a region or profuse, idle talk.


12. pannier (pan"y*r, -e *r) The word "pannier" was first used in thirteenth-century France to mean bread basket; it is related to the French word "pain," bread. Soon it was also used to refer to a fish basket, and then a basket for toting any provisions. In later centuries, the term was applied to the baskets balanced on a donkey's back. Today we use the term to denote a basket, especially a large one carried on a person's back.

13. pariah (p* ri"*) The term "pariah," an outcast, comes from the name of one of the lowest castes in India. Composed of agricultural laborers and household servants, it is not the lowest caste, but its members are still considered untouchable by the Brahmans. The British used the term "pariah" for anyone of low social standing. The term "pariah" now is used for any outcast among his or her own people.

14. pecuniary (pi ky»"ne er'e) The Romans measured a man's worth by the number of animals he kept on his farm. They adapted the Latin word for a farm animal, "pecu," to refer to individual wealth. But as people acquired new ways of measuring wealth, such as money and land, the Roman word evolved into "pecunia," which referred most specifically to money. From this came the adjective "pecuniary," pertaining to or consisting of money.

15. phantasmagoria (fan taz'm* gôr"e *) In the early years of the nineteenth century, an inventor named Philipstal created a wondrous device for producing optical illusions. By projecting colored slides onto a thin silk screen, Philipstal made his spectral images appear to move. Today, of course, we take such motion-picture illusions for granted, but in the age of the magic lantern, such visions were marvelous indeed. Philipstal named his invention "phantasmagoria," which we now apply to a shifting series of phantasms or deceptive appearances, as in a dream.

16. poplin (pop"lin) The origin of this word has nothing to do with its appearance or use. In the early fourteenth century, the papal seat was located in Avignon, France. Even after the papacy was moved to Rome, Avignon remained important for its production of a sturdy dress and upholstery fabric. The fabric came to be identified with the city in which it was made. Since Avignon remained a papal town until the late eighteenth century, the fabric came to be called "papelino," or papal. The English pronounced the word "poplin," giving us the present-day name
for this finely corded fabric of cotton, rayon, silk, or wool.

17. precipitate (pri sip"i tat') The word "precipitate" is based on the Latin root "caput," meaning head. In fact, the word was first used to apply to those who had been executed or killed themselves by being hurled or jumping headlong from a "precipice" or high place. Later, the word came to mean to rush headlong. From this has come today's meaning, to hasten the occurrence of; to bring about prematurely.

18. precocious (pri ko"sh*s) To the Romans, Latin "praecox," the source of English "precocious," was a culinary term meaning precooked. In time, however, its meaning was extended to acting prematurely. It is this later meaning of "precocious" that we use today, unusually advanced in development, especially mental development.


19. pretext (pre"tekst) "Pretext" comes from the Latin word "praetexta," meaning an ornament, such as the purple markings on a toga denoting rank. In addition to its literal sense, however, the word carried the connotation of something to cloak one's true identity. We have retained only the word's figurative meaning, something that is put forward to conceal a true purpose or object; an ostensible reason.

20. procrustean (pro krus"te *n) According to one version of the Greek myth, Procrustes was a bandit who made his living waylaying unsuspecting travelers. He tied everyone who fell into his grasp to an iron bed. If they were longer than the bed, he cut short their legs to make their bodies fit; if they were shorter, he stretched their bodies until they fit tightly. Hence, "procrustean" means tending to produce conformity through violent or arbitrary means.

Test 1: True/False
In the space provided, write T if the definition of the numbered word is true or F if it is false.

T or F

1. procrustean              marine life _____
2. pecuniary                 picayune _____
3. precipitate               play _____
4. pretext                     falsification _____
5. pariah                      outcast _____
6. poplin                      religious vestment _____
7. palaver                     serving tray _____
8. precocious               advanced _____
9. pannier                    basket _____
10. phantasmagoria     illusions _____

Matching Synonyms

Match each of the following numbered words with its closest synonym from the list of lettered words in the second column. Write your answer in the space provided.

1. poplin                      a. excuse _____
2. palaver                     b. producing conformity by violent means _____
3. pecuniary                 c. fabric _____
4. phantasmagoria       d. fantasy _____
5. pretext                     e. expedite _____
6. precocious               f. idle chatter _____
7. precipitate               g. advanced _____
8. pariah                      h. outcast _____
9. procrustean              i. basket _____
10. pannier                  j. monetary _____

Lesson 3.

Read through the interesting stories behind these ten words. Then work through the two self-tests  to see how many of the words you can use correctly.

21. proletariat (pro'li târ"e *t) "Proletariat" derives from the Latin "proletarius," a Roman freeman who lacked property and money. The word came from "proles," offspring, children. Although the freemen had the vote, many wealthy Romans despised them, saying they were useful only to have children. They called them "proletarii," producers of children. Karl Marx picked up the word in the mid-nineteenth century as a label for the lower-class working people of his age. "Proletariat" retains the same meaning today: members of the working class, especially
those who do not possess capital and must sell their labor to survive.

22. Arcadian (är ka"de *n) The residents of landlocked Arcadia, in ancient Greece, did not venture to other lands. As a result, they maintained traditional ways and lived what others imagined to be a simpler life. Ancient classical poets made "Arcadia" a symbol for a land of pastoral happiness. In the sixteenth century, English poet Sir Philip Sidney referred to a bucolic land he called "Arcadia." The word has retained this meaning, and today we consider residents of an "Arcadian" place to be rustic, simple, and innocent.

23. rake (rak) "Rake," meaning a dissolute person, especially a man, was originally "rakehell." In the sixteenth century, this colorful term was used to describe a person so dissipated that he would "rake hell" to find his pleasures. "Rakehell" is now considered a somewhat archaic term to describe such roués; "rake" is the common word.

24. pygmy (pig"me) The ancient Greeks were entranced by stories of a tribe of dwarfs in the upper Nile who were so small that they could be swallowed by cranes. To describe these tiny people, the Greeks used the word "pygmaios," which also referred to the distance on a person's arm from the elbow to the knuckles. The word became English "pygmy," a tiny person or thing; a
person or thing of small importance.

25. sardonic (sär don"ik) The ancient Greeks described a plant on the island of Sardinia whose flesh, if eaten, caused the victim's face to become grotesquely convulsed, as if in scornful laughter. The Greek name for Sardinia was "Sardos"; therefore, "sardonios" came to refer to any mocking laughter. The English word eventually became "sardonic," characterized by bitter irony or scornful derision.

26. tartar (tär"t*r) The fierce Genghis Khan and his successors led an army of bloodthirsty warriors, including the Ta-ta Mongols, in a series of conquests throughout Asia and into Europe. Their name, "Tartar" or "Tatar," became closely associated with brutal massacres. Today the word "tartar" refers to a savage, ill-tempered, or intractable person.

27. argosy (är"g* se) In the Middle Ages, cities on the Mediterranean coast maintained large fleets to ship goods around the known world. Ragusa was a Sicilian city well known for its large ships, called "ragusea." In English, the initial two letters became switched, creating "argusea." From there it was a short step to "argosy," a large merchant ship, especially one with a rich cargo. Because of Ragusa's wealth, the word "argosy" also came to mean an opulent supply or collection.

28. Balkanize (bôl"k* niz') After centuries of war, in 1912 the Balkan nations united to conquer the Turks and divide the spoils among themselves. The following year, however, the Balkan nations quarreled over how to divide their booty and began to fight among themselves. From this experience comes the verb "Balkanize," to divide a country or territory into small, quarrelsome, ineffectual states.

29. cravat (kr* vat") In the late seventeenth century, the French king Louis XIV formed a special division of Croats, a Slavic people, to serve in his army. The Croats wore colorful, much-admired neckties to distinguish themselves from the other regiments. Fashionable civilians took to wearing these neckties, calling them "cravats" after a variant spelling of "Croat." The term is still used to mean necktie, although it is somewhat out of fashion. It also refers to a scarf worn by men.

30. hegira (hi ji"r*, hej"*r *) Around the year 600, the prophet Muhammad began to preach the new faith of Islam. To escape persecution, he was forced to flee his home in Mecca. Eventually, his followers increased, and by his death in 632, he controlled Arabia. Within a century, the empire of Islam had spread throughout western Asia and northern Africa. The turning point, Muhammad's flight from Mecca, came to be called the "Hegira," after the Arabic word for flight or emigration. The "Hegira" is the starting point on the Muslim calendar, and we now apply
the word to any flight or journey to a desirable or congenial place.

True/False
In the space provided, write T if the definition of the numbered word is true or F if it is false.

T or F

1. rake                         roué _____
2. proletariat                wealthy persons _____
3. hegira                      flight _____
4. cravat                      craving _____
5. tartar                        disciple _____
6. arcadian                   rustic _____
7. sardonic                   derisive _____
8. pygmy                     monkey _____
9. argosy                      rich supply _____
10. balkanize               vulcanize _____


Matching Synonyms
Select the best definition for each numbered word. Write your answer in the space provided.

1. rake                               a. bucolic _____
2. pygmy                           b. merchant ship _____
3. cravat                            c. midget _____
4. arcadian                         d. break up into antagonistic units _____
5. argosy                            e. the working class _____
6. hegira                            f. scornful; mocking _____
7. balkanize                       g. necktie _____
8. proletariat                      h. bad-tempered person _____
9. sardonic                         i. journey or flight _____
10. tartar                            j. roué _____



Lesson 4.
Now look at the backgrounds of these ten words. Then complete the two self-tests to help you add them to your vocabulary.

31. ballyhoo (bal"e h»') The word "ballyhoo" is of uncertain origin. Some, however, have connected it with the Irish town of Ballyhooy, known for the rowdy and often uncontrolled quarrels of its inhabitants. Today "ballyhoo" is an Americanism with a specific meaning: a clamorous attempt to win customers or advance a cause; blatant advertising or publicity.

32. tawdry (tô"dre) In the seventh century, an Englishwoman named Etheldreda fled her husband to establish an abbey. When the Venerable Bede recounted her story in the early eighth century, he claimed that her death had been caused by a tumor in her throat, which she believed was a punishment for her early vanity of wearing jewelry about her neck. Her abbey eventually became the Cathedral of Ely; her name, Audrey. In her honor, the cathedral town held an annual fair where "trifling objects" were hawked. One theory as to the development of the word "tawdry"
relates to the hawkers' cry, "Saint Audrey's lace!" This became "Sin t'Audrey lace" and then "tawdry lace." By association with these cheap trinkets, the word "tawdry" has come to mean gaudy, showy, or cheap.

33. python (pi"thon) According to Greek myth, the sacred oracle at Delphi was at one time threatened by a terrible serpent called "Python." It was finally killed by Apollo. About 150 years ago, a large constrictor snake often measuring more than twenty feet long was named after this mythical monster.

34. recalcitrant (ri kal"si tr*nt) The word was formed from the Latin prefix "re-," back, and "calcitrare," to kick. Thus, a recalcitrant person is one who kicks back, resisting authority or control.

35. copperhead (kop"*r hed') The term "copperhead" was coined by the New York Tribune in the early days of the Civil War to refer to a Northerner who sympathized with the South. The term came from the sneaky and poisonous copperhead snake, which strikes without warning.

36. silhouette (silet") At the urging of his mistress, Madame de Pompadour, the French king Louis XV appointed étienne de Silhouette as his finance minister. His mission was to enact strict economy measures to rescue the government from near-bankruptcy. At the same time, there was a revival of the practice of tracing profiles created by shadows. Since they replaced more costly paintings, these outlines came to be derided as "à la Silhouette"—another of his money-saving measures. Although Silhouette lasted in office less than a year, he achieved a sort of immortality when his name became permanently associated with a two-dimensional representation of the outline of an object, as a person's profile, generally filled in with black.

37. remora (rem"*r *) Since this odd fish impeded the progress of Roman ships by attaching itself to the vessels with its sucking disks, the Romans named it a "remora," that which holds back; hindrance. Today we use the term only to name the fish, though formerly it was also a synonym for obstacle, hindrance.

38. caprice (k* pres") "Caprice," a sudden, unpredictable change of mind, a whim, doesn't remind us of hedgehogs, yet these animals probably played a role in this word's past. "Caprice" comes ultimately from the Italian word "'capriccio," which originally meant fright, horror. The word is thought to be a compound of "capo," head, and "riccio," hedgehog, because when people are very frightened, their hair stands on end, like a hedgehog's spines.

39. treacle (tre"k*l) Originally, "treacle" was an ointment used by the ancient Romans and Greeks against the bite of wild animals. But in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, competing quack medicine hawkers added sweetening to make their bitter potions more palatable. After a while, the sweetening agent itself, usually molasses, came to be called "treacle." We retain this meaning and have extended it to refer figuratively to contrived or unrestrained sentimentality as well.

40. billingsgate (bil"ingz gat') In the 1500s, "Belin's gate," a walled town within London, was primarily a fish market. The name was soon distorted to "billingsgate," and since many fishwives and seamen were known for their salty tongues, the word "billingsgate" came to mean coarse or vulgar abusive language.

True/False
In the space provided, write T if the definition of the numbered word is true or F if it is false.

T or F

1. recalcitrant                          easygoing _____
2. caprice                                 capable _____
3. remora                                 renovate _____
4. copperhead                          fierce warrior _____
5. ballyhoo                              dance _____
6. tawdry                                 gaudy _____
7. billingsgate                          profane language _____
8. python                                 snake _____
9. treacle                                  sugar _____
10. silhouette                           outline _____


Matching Synonyms
Match each of the following numbered words with its closest synonym. Write your answer in the space provided.

1. python a. whim _____
2. ballyhoo b. cheap _____
3. treacle c. verbal abuse _____
4. tawdry d. snake _____
5. copperhead e. outline _____
6. recalcitrant f. clamor _____
7. silhouette g. balky _____
8. caprice h. mawkish sentimentality _____
9. remora i. fish _____
10. billingsgate j. Southern sympathizer _____

Lesson 5.

The stories behind these ten words provide intriguing reading and can give your vocabulary true power. After you study the words, complete the two self-tests to see how many of the words you can use correctly.

41. apartheid (* pärt"hat, -hit) "Apartheid," the term for a policy of racial segregation and discrimination against nonwhites, entered English from Afrikaans, the language of South Africa's Dutch settlers, the Boers. They created the word from the Dutch word for "apart" and the suffix "- heid," related to our suffix "-hood." Thus, the word literally means apartness or separateness. It was first used in 1947, in a South African newspaper.

42. quixotic (kwik sot"ik) The word "quixotic," meaning extravagantly chivalrous or romantic, is based on the character of Don Quixote, the chivalrous knight in Cervantes' 1605 masterpiece Don Quixote de la Mancha. The impractical, visionary knight was ludicrously blind to the false nature of his dreams.

43. bromide (bro"mid) "Bromides" are chemicals, several of which can be used as sedatives. In 1906, the American humorist Gelett Burgess first used the word to mean a boring person, one who is likely to serve the same purpose as a sedative. The term was then extended to mean a platitude, the kind of remark one could expect from a tiresome person.

44. profane (pr* fan", pro-) Only fully initiated men were allowed to participate in Greek and Roman religious rites; those not admitted were called "profane," from "pro," outside, and "fanum," temple. When the word came into English, it was applied to persons or things not part of Christianity. Probably in reference to the contempt of nonbelievers, "profane" now means characterized by irreverence for God or sacred things.

45. rialto (re al"to) In the late sixteenth century, the Venetians erected a bridge across the Grand Canal. Since the bridge spanned deep waters, it was called the "Rialto," deep stream. The bridge led to the creation of a busy shopping area in the center of the city. From this shopping center we derive our present meaning of "rialto," an exchange or mart.

46. thespian (thes"pe *n) A Greek poet named Thespis, who flourished circa 534 B.C., enlarged the traditional celebrations at the festival of Dionysus by writing verses to be chanted alternately by individuals and the chorus. This opportunity to be a solo performer was a first. From the poet's name we derive the word "thespian," an actor or actress.

47. salver (sal"v*r) "Salver" came into English from Spanish "salva," a kind of tray. The Spanish word derived from Latin "salvare," to save, from the practice of having a servant taste one's food or drink to check for poison. Because poisoning was the method of choice for eliminating wealthy enemies in the Middle Ages, the practice of retaining a taster was commonplace among the affluent. The master's food was presented upon a separate tray, so the term "salva" came to apply to the tray as well as the tasting. Once the habit of poisoning people subsided, the English term "salver" came to mean a tray, especially one used for serving food.

48. chagrin (sh* grin") The word "chagrin," meaning a feeling of vexation due to disappointment, does not derive from "shagreen," a piece of hard, abrasive leather used to polish metal, even though both words are spelled identically in French. French scholars connect "chagrin," vexation, grief, with an Old French verb, "chagreiner," to turn melancholy or gloomy, which evolved in part from a Germanic word related to English "grim."

49. shibboleth (shib"* lith, -leth') In the twelfth chapter of Judges, Jephthah and his men were victorious over the warriors of Ephraim. After the battle, Jephthah gave his guards the password "shibboleth" to distinguish friends from foes; he picked the word because the Ephraimites could not pronounce the "sh" sound. His choice was shrewd, and many of his enemies were captured and killed. Thus, "shibboleth" has come to mean a peculiarity of pronunciation, usage, or behavior that distinguishes a particular class or set of persons. It also can mean slogan; catchword.

50. vie (vi) The word "vie," to strive in competition or rivalry with another, to contend for superiority, was originally a shortened version of "envien," a sixteenth-century gaming term meaning to raise the stake. The contraction, "vie," came to mean to contend, compete.

True/False
In the space provided, write T if the definition of the numbered word is true or F if it is false.

T or F

1. chagrin                                chafe _____
2. vie                                       accede _____
3. profane                                irreverent _____
4. salver                                   tray _____
5. quixotic                               ill-tempered _____
6. rialto                                    marketplace _____
7. apartheid                             foreigner _____
8. shibboleth                            platitude _____
9. thespian                               actor _____
10. bromide                             explosive _____

Definitions
Select the best definition for each numbered word. Circle your answer.

_____ 1. bromide
a. cliché
b. effervescence
c. angst

_____ 2. vie
a. treat
b. contend
c. despise

_____ 3. quixotic
a. alien
b. romantic
c. fictional

_____ 4. salver
a. salivate
b. poison
c. tray

_____ 5. shibboleth
a. peculiarity
b. forbidden
c. murdered

_____ 6. profane
a. pious
b. irreverent
c. exploding

_____ 7. thespian
a. actress
b. speech impairment
c. playwright

_____ 8. apartheid
a. discrimination
b. unity
c. hopelessness

_____ 9. rialto
a. shipyard
b. reality
c. exchange

_____ 10. chagrin
a. stiff
b. vexation
c. smirk


Lesson 6.

Knowing the histories of the following ten words can help you remember their meanings and use them in your speech and writing. Study the words, then work through the two tests that follow.


51. Promethean (pr* me"the *n) According to Greek myth, as punishment for stealing fire from the gods and giving it to mortal humans, Prometheus was bound to the side of a mountain, where he was attacked daily by a fierce bird that feasted upon his liver. At night his wounds healed; the next day he was attacked anew. Because of his extraordinary boldness in stealing the divine fire, the word "Promethean" has come to mean creative, boldly original.

52. sarcophagus (sär kof"* g*s) Although the majority of ancient Greeks favored burial or cremation, some obtained limestone coffins that could dissolve a body in little over a month. The coffin was called a "sarcophagus," from the Greek "sarx," flesh, and "phagos," eating. Today we use the term to refer to a stone coffin, especially one bearing sculpture, an inscription, etc., often displayed as a monument.

53. quorum (kwôr"*m) The word "quorum" was first used as part of a Latin phrase meaning to select people for official court business. Ultimately, it came to mean the number of members of a group or organization required to be present to transact business; legally, usually a majority.

54. antimacassar (an'ti m* kas"*r) In the 1800s, macassar oil was imported from Indonesia to England as a popular remedy for baldness. Based on its reputation, men began to apply it liberally to their pates, but the oil stained the backs of sofas and chairs where they rested their oily heads. Therefore, homemakers began to  place pieces of fabric over sofa and chair backs, since these scraps could be washed more easily than stained upholstery. These fabric pieces came to be called "antimacassars"—against macassar oil. They survive today in the little doilies fastidious homemakers drape over furniture.

55. lackey (lak"e) After their invasion of Spain in 711, the Moors conquered nearly the entire country and established a glittering civilization. But it was not to last. By 1100, Christians had already wrested half of Spain from the Moors. Two hundred years later, the Moors retained only a small toehold; and a hundred years after that, they were driven out of Europe entirely. As the Moors suffered repeated defeats, their captured soldiers became servants to their Spanish conquerors. They were called "alacayo." The initial "a" was later dropped, and the word was rendered in English as "lackey," a servile follower.

56. obelisk (ob"* lisk') The word comes from the ancient Egyptian practice of erecting tall, thin pillars to pay homage to the sun god Ra. The Greeks called these shafts "obeliskoi." The word has come down to us as "obelisk," with its meaning intact, a tapering four-sided shaft of stone with a pyramidal apex; a monument.

57. paladin (pal"* din) The original paladins were Charlemagne's twelve knights. According to legend, the famous paladin Roland was caught in an ambush and fought valiantly with his small band of followers to the last man. Because of his actions, "paladin" has come down to us as any champion of noble causes.

58. hobnob (hob"nob') Those who "hobnob" with their buddies associate on very friendly terms or drink together. The word comes from the Anglo-Saxon "haebbe" and "naebbe," to have and to have not. In the 1700s, "hobnob" meant to toast friends and host alternate rounds of drinks. Each person thus had the pleasure of treating, creating a sense of familiarity. Today this usage survives, even if those hobnobbing are teetotalers.

59. helot (hel"*t, he"l*t) Around the eighth century B.C., the Spartans conquered and enslaved the people of the southern half of the Peloponnesus. They called these slaves "helots," perhaps from the Greek word meaning to enslave. Today "helot" still means serf or slave; bondsman.

60. kowtow (kou"tou") The Chinese people, who were largely isolated from the West until Portuguese traders established a post outside Canton, regarded their emperor as a representation of God on earth. Those approaching the emperor had to fall to the ground and strike their heads against the floor as a sign of humility. This was called a "kowtow," from the Chinese word that meant knock-head. As a verb, the English word follows the original meaning, to touch the forehead to the ground while kneeling, as an act of worship; but from this meaning we have derived a figurative use as well: to act in an obsequious manner; show servile deference.

Defining Words

Define each of the following words.

1. obelisk ______________________________________________________
2. Promethean ______________________________________________________
3. helot ________________________________________________________
4. sarcophagus ______________________________________________________
5. kowtow ___________________________________________________________
6. lackey ___________________________________________________________
7. antimacassar ______________________________________________________
8. hobnob ________________________________________________________
9. quorum ________________________________________________________
10. paladin _______________________________________________________

True/False
In the space provided, write T if the definition of the numbered word is true or F if it is false.

T or F

1. lackey                                  servant _____
2. quorum                                majority _____
3. obelisk                                 shaft _____
4. hobnob                                twisted logic _____
5. promethean                         creative _____
6. sarcophagus                         cremation _____
7. helot                                    hell-on-wheels _____
8. antimacassar                        against travel _____
9. kowtow                               bow low _____
10. paladin                              villain _____

Lesson 7.

The quirky stories behind the following ten words can help you understand and remember them better. Read through the histories and complete the two self-tests to add to your mastery of language.

61. quahog (kwô"hôg, -hog) Despite the "hog" at the end of the word, a "quahog" has nothing to do with a pig. Rather, it is a clam; the word comes from the Algonquian (Narragansett) word "poquauhock."

62. protean (pro"te *n) According to Greek legend, Proteus was a sea god who possessed the power to change his shape at will. He also had the ability to foretell the future, but those wishing to avail themselves of his power first had to steal upon him at noon when he checked his herds of sea calves, catch him, and bind him securely. Thus bound, Proteus would change shape furiously, but the petitioner who could keep him restrained until he returned to his original shape would receive the answer to his question—if he still remembered what he wanted to know. From
Proteus, then, we get the word "protean," readily assuming different forms or characters; variable.

63. noisome (noi"s*m) Although the words appear to have the same root, "noisome" bears no relation to "noise." "Noisome" means offensive or disgusting, as an odor, and comes from the Middle English word "noy," meaning harm. The root is related, however, to the word "annoy," to molest or bother.

64. Ouija (we"j*) "Ouija" is a trademark for a board game used to spell out messages in spiritualistic communication. It consists of a small board, or planchette, resting on a larger board marked with words and letters. The name comes from the French and German words for yes, "oui" and "ja."

65. simony (si"m* ne, sim"*-) Simon the sorcerer offered to pay the Apostle Peter to teach him the wondrous cures he had seen him perform, not understanding that his feats were miracles rather than magic tricks. From Simon's name comes the term "simony," the sin of buying or selling ecclesiastical preferments.

66. rigmarole (rig"m* rol') In fourteenth-century England, a register of names was called a "rageman." Later it became a "ragman," then "ragman roll." As it changed, the term evolved to refer to a series of unconnected statements. By the 1700s, the word had become "rigmarole," with its present meaning, an elaborate or complicated procedure.

67. bolshevik (bol"sh* vik) At a rally of Communist leaders in 1903, Lenin garnered a majority of the votes. He cleverly dubbed his supporters "Bolsheviks," meaning the majority. His move was effective propaganda. Even though his supporters actually comprised only a minority, the name stuck and came to be associated with a member of the Russian Communist party. The word is also used in a derogatory sense to denote an extreme political radical, a revolutionary.

68. misericord (miz'*r i kôrd", mi zer"i kôrd') Both the small projection on the underside of a hinged seat of a church stall that gives support, when the seat is lifted, to a person standing in the stall and a medieval dagger have the same name, "misericord." In a curious sense, this is because they both provide mercy, the seat giving a parishioner a resting place during a long service, the dagger delivering the coup de grâce to a wounded foe. "Misericord" comes from the Latin "misericordia," meaning compassion.

69. surplice (sûr"plis) To keep themselves warm in damp, chilly stone churches, clergymen in the Middle Ages wore fur robes. But since fur was not considered proper attire for religious men, the priests covered their furs with loose-fitting white overgarments. The word "surplice" to describe these broad-sleeved white vestments came from their function: the Latin "super," over, and "pellicia," fur garment.

70. sylph (silf) A German alchemist of the 1700s coined the term "Sylphis" to describe the spirits of the air. He envisioned them as looking like humans but able to move more swiftly and gracefully. Over the years, the word evolved to mean a slender, graceful girl or woman.

True/False
In the space provided, write T if the definition of the numbered word is true or F if it is false.

T or F

1. misericord                           wretchedness _____
2. ouija                                    board game _____
3. simony                                 slickness _____
4. bolshevik                             sheik _____
5. protean                                changeable _____
6. noisome                               clamorous _____
7. sylph                                    svelte female _____
8. quahog                                bivalve _____
9. rigmarole                             simplification _____
10. surplice                              clerical vestment _____

Matching Synonyms
Match each of the numbered words with its closest synonym from the list of lettered words in the second column. Write your answer in the space provided.

1. sylph                              a. vestment _____
2. quahog                          b. medieval dagger _____
3. surplice                          c. ecclesiastical favors _____
4. bolshevik                       d. slender girl _____
5. ouija                              e. Communist _____
6. misericord                     f. involved process _____
7. noisome                         g. variable _____
8. protean                          h. clam _____
9. rigmarole                       i. foul _____
10. simony                         j. board game _____


Lesson 8.

Now read the histories of these ten unique words. Fix them in your memory by completing the two self-tests that follow. The words can make your speech and writing more colorful, interesting, and effective.

71. muumuu (m»"m»') This loose dress, often brightly colored or patterned, was first introduced into Hawaii by missionaries anxious to clothe their nude Hawaiian female converts. To accomplish their aims, the missionaries gave the Hawaiian women dresses cut in the European fashion, which the Hawaiians adapted to suit their needs and climate. The dress acquired the Hawaiian name "muumuu," which means cut off, because it lacked a yoke and therefore looked "cut off" at the neck.

72. sybarite (sib"* rit') The ancient Greek colony of Sybaris in southern Italy was known for its luxurious life style. The residents were so famous for their opulent ways that the word "sybarite" came to be used for any person devoted to luxury and pleasure.

73. rostrum (ros"tr*m) Today a "rostrum" is any platform, stage, or the like for public speaking. The word comes from the victory in 338 B.C. of the Romans over the pirates of Antium (Anzio), off the Italian coast. The victorious consul took back to Rome the prows of the six ships he had captured. These were attached to the lecterns used by Roman speakers. They came to be called "rostra," or beaks. We use the singular, "rostrum."

74. lemur (le"m*r) An animal with a small foxlike face, woolly fur, and cute monkeylike body, the "lemur" seems to some people to be an adorable creature. The scientist who first named this small nocturnal mammal, the eighteenth-century Swedish botanist Linnaeus, obviously had a less pleasant reaction to the animal, since the Latin word "lemur" denotes malevolent, frightening spirits of the dead.

75. spoonerism (sp»"n* riz'*m) The English clergyman W. A. Spooner (1844–1930) was notorious for his habit of transposing the initial letters or other sounds of words, as in "a blushing crow" for "a crushing blow." Since the good reverend was not unique in his affliction, we use the word "spoonerism" to describe these unintentional transpositions of sounds.

76. vermicelli (vûr'mi chel"e) Anyone faced with a small child determined not to eat his or her spaghetti because "it looks like worms" had better avoid explaining the origin of "vermicelli." In Italian, "vermicelli" is the plural of "vermicello," a diminutive of "verme," which does indeed mean worm. When dealing with recalcitrant children, it's probably better to refer to these long, slender threads of spaghetti simply as "pasta."

77. pundit (pun"dit) Today we use the word "pundit" to mean an expert or authority; but in the nineteenth century, the word was usually applied to a learned person in India. It comes from the Hindi word "pandit," meaning learned man, a Brahman with profound knowledge of Sanskrit, Hindu law, and so forth.

78. yahoo (yä"h») This word for a coarse, uncouth person was coined by Jonathan Swift in his 1726 novel Gulliver's Travels. In Swift's satire, the Yahoos were a race of humanoid brutes ruled by the Houyhnhnms, civilized horses.

79. stoic (sto"ik) The Stoics were philosophers of ancient Greece who believed in self-restraint. Their name comes from Greek stoa, "porch," where they habitually walked. Hence the word "stoic," which describes a person who is impassive, calm, and austere.

80. wormwood (wûrm"w»d') "Wormwood" is the active narcotic ingredient of absinthe, a bitter green liqueur now banned in most Western countries. Originally, however, the herb was used as a folk remedy for worms in the body. Because of the herb's bitter qualities, we also use it figuratively to mean something bitter, grievous, or extremely unpleasant.

True/False
In the space provided, write T if the definition of the numbered word is true or F if it is false.

T or F

1. spoonerism                    Midwesterner _____
2. yahoo                            oaf _____
3. wormwood                    bitterness _____
4. muumuu                        murmur _____
5. pundit                            bad kick _____
6. lemur                             monkeylike nocturnal mammal _____
7. sybarite                          slender _____
8. stoic                               austere _____
9. vermicelli                       aggravation _____
10. rostrum                        register _____

Matching Synonyms

Select the best definition for each numbered word. Write your answer in the space provided.

1. rostrum                          a. loose dress _____
2. yahoo                            b. something bitter _____
3. muumuu                        c. small nocturnal mammal _____
4. spoonerism                    d. long, thin threadlike pasta _____
5. wormwood                    e. impassive _____
6. sybarite                          f. stage or platform _____
7. lemur                             g. authority _____
8. pundit                            h. lover of luxury _____
9. vermicelli                       i. transposition of sounds in words _____
10. stoic                             j. boor _____

Lesson 9.

Here are ten more words with intriguing pasts. Read through the histories, then complete the selftests that follow. Spend a few minutes using each of the words in a sentence to help you make them part of your everyday speech and writing.

81. termagant (tûr"m* g*nt) The word "termagant," meaning a violent, turbulent, or brawling woman, comes from a mythical deity that many Europeans of the Middle Ages believed was worshiped by the Muslims. It often appeared in morality plays as a violent, overbearing personage in long robes. In modern usage, "termagant" is applied only to women.

82. blarney (blär"ne) According to Irish legend, anyone who kisses a magical stone set twenty feet beneath the ground of a castle near the village of Blarney, in Ireland, will henceforth possess the gift of eloquence. One story claims the Blarney stone got its powers from the eloquence of the seventeenth-century Irish patriot Cormac McCarthy, whose soft speech won favorable terms from Elizabeth I after an Irish uprising. From this stone-kissing custom, "blarney" has come to mean flattering or wheedling talk; cajolery.

83. schooner (sk»"n*r) According to legend, Captain Andrew Robinson built the first "schooner," a sailing vessel with a foremast and a mainmast. As it cut smoothly into the water on its maiden voyage, someone presumably was heard to exclaim, "Oh, how she scoons!" Picking up on the praise, Robinson decided to call his previously unnamed ship a "scooner." The "h" was added later. Scholars, however, doubt the veracity of this story and regard the word's source as uncertain.

84. eunuch (y»"n*k) A "eunuch" is a castrated man, especially formerly, one employed by Oriental rulers as a harem attendant. The word is based on the Greek "eunouchos," from "eune," bed, and "echein," to keep, since a eunuch is perfectly suited for guarding a woman's bed. The word is used figuratively to refer to a weak, powerless person.

85. reefer (re"f*r) The word "reefer" has several different meanings; but in the nineteenth century, the word was used to refer to sailors. The term came from a description of their duties, the taking in of the reefs. Heavy woolen coats hindered the seamen in the execution of their duties, so they wore close-fitting coats instead. These coats took their name from the sailors who wore them, and today we often refer to any short coat or jacket of thick cloth as a "reefer."

86. shrew (shr») In Old English, the word "shrew" described a small, fierce rodent. The word was later applied to a person with a violent temper and tenacious personality similar to the rodent's. Although "shrew" has retained this meaning, it is usually applied only to a woman.

87. kudos (k»"doz, ky»"-) Although "kudos" has come down to us from the Greek intact in both form and meaningpraise, gloryin the process it has come to be regarded as a plural word, although it is singular. As a result, another new word has been formed, "kudo." Although purists still prefer "kudos is" to "kudos are," only time will tell if the transformation to kudo/kudos becomes permanent.

88. bohemian (bo he"me *n) In the early fifteenth century, a band of vagabond peasants took up residence in Paris. Knowing that they had come from somewhere in central Europe, the French dubbed the gypsies "Bohemians," in the belief that they were natives of Bohemia. Working from the stereotyped view of gypsies as free spirits, the French then applied the term "bohemian" to a person, typically one with artistic or intellectual aspirations, who lives an unconventional life.

89. rhubarb (r»"bärb) In conventional usage, the word refers to a long-stalked plant, used in tart conserves and pie fillings; it is also a slang term for quarrel or squabble. The ancient Greeks gave the plant its name. Since it grew in an area outside of Greece, they called it "rha barbaron." "Rha" was the name of the plant and "barbaron" meant foreign.

90. lacuna (l* ky»"n*) "Lacuna," a gap or missing part; hiatus, comes from the identical Latin
word, "lacuna," meaning a hollow. It first entered English to refer to a missing part in a manuscript. It is also the root of "lagoon."


Test 1: True/False
In the space provided, write T if the definition of the numbered word is true or F if it is false.
T or F
1. kudos compliment _____
2. blarney cajolery _____
3. shrew cleverness _____
4. reefer woolen coat _____
5. lacuna hiatus _____
6. termagant intermediate _____
7. bohemian businesslike _____
8. schooner sailing vessel _____
9. rhubarb sweet _____
10. eunuch castrated man _____
Answers to Word Histories II Lesson 9 Test 1:
Test 2: Definitions
Select the best definition for each numbered word. Write your answer in the space provided.
_____ 1. kudos
a. enclave
b. martial arts
c. acclaim
d. humiliation
_____ 2. eunuch
a. hero
b. warrior
c. castle
d. castrated man
_____ 3. bohemian
a. free spirit
b. butcher
c. foreigner
d. master chef
_____ 4. shrew
a. virago
b. sly
c. bibliophile
d. hearty
_____ 5. lacuna
a. hot tub
b. gap
c. lake
d. cool water
_____ 6. termagant
a. lease
b. eternal
c. possessive
d. brawling woman
_____ 7. schooner
a. release
b. submarine
c. possessive
d. sailboat
_____ 8. rhubarb
a. root
b. ridicule
c. squabble
d. arrow
_____ 9. blarney
a. mountain climbing
b. sweet talk
c. sightseeing
d. luncheon meats
_____ 10. reefer
a. coat
b. renegade
c. exotic fish
d. regret
Answers to Word Histories II Lesson 9 Test 2:


Lesson 10.

Recalling the history of these ten words can help you remember their meanings and make them part of your stock of words. Go through the following word histories and complete the self-tests that follow. Then review the histories to help you remember the words.

91. solecism (sol"* siz'*m, so"l*-) To the ancient Greeks, the people of the colony of Soloi spoke inexcusably poor Greek. The Greeks were perhaps most offended by the Solois' errors in grammar and usage. They called such barbarous speech "soloikismos," the language of Soloi. Through Latin, the word became "solecism," a substandard or ungrammatical usage; a breech of good manners or etiquette.

92. requiem (rek"we *m) A "requiem" is a mass celebrated for the repose of the souls of the dead. It comes from the opening line of the Roman Catholic mass for the dead, "Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine," meaning Give them eternal rest, Lord.

93. tariff (tar"if) "Tariff," an official schedule of duties or customs imposed by a government on imports and exports, comes from the Arabic term for inventory, "ta"rif." Perhaps because this story is so unexciting, a false etymology claims that the word instead comes from the name of a Moorish town near the straits of Gibraltar formerly used as a base for daring pirate raids. Colorful, but not true.

94. blitzkrieg (blits"kreg') The German word "Blitzkrieg," literally a lightning war, describes the overwhelming Nazi attacks on Poland in 1940. In two weeks, Germany pounded Poland into submission; in six weeks, it crushed the French army. Although ultimately the Germans met defeat, their method of attack has found a place in our language, and "blitzkrieg" has come to denote an overwhelming, all-out attack.

95. entrepreneur (än'tr* pr* nûr", -n»r", -ny»r") "Entrepreneur" came from the French word derived from the verb "entreprendre," to undertake. It was initially used in English to denote a musician's manager, the person responsible for such things as organizing concerts; in the nineteenth century, the word assumed its present meaning: a person who organizes, manages, and assumes responsibility for a business or other enterprise.

96. spinnaker (spin"* k*r) According to one story, in the mid-nineteenth century, a yachtsman devised a new racing sail. The name of the yacht was the "Sphinx," but the sailors had difficulty pronouncing the word. Their mispronunciation gave us the word "spinnaker," a large, triangular sail carried by yachts as a headsail when running before the wind.

97. reynard (ra"närd, -n*rd, ren"*rd) This poetic name given to the fox comes from the medieval beast epic, stories first circulated orally throughout western Europe, then written down. Aside from countless hours of entertainment, these satirical tales have also provided us with words for other animals: "bruin" for bear and "chanticleer" for rooster.

98. kibitzer (kib"it s*r) A "kibitzer" is a spectator, especially at a card game, who gives unwanted advice to a player; a meddler. This word came from Yiddish, which derived it from the German verb "kiebitzen," to be a busybody; give unwanted advice to card players. The verb, in turn, came from "Kiebitz," the German word for a lapwing, an inquisitive little bird given to shrill cries.

99. lampoon (lam p»n") "Lampoon," a sharp, often virulent satire, comes from the French word "lampon," which is thought to come from "lampons," let's drink, a common ending to seventeenth-century French satirical drinking songs. We also use the word as a verb meaning to mock or ridicule.

100. scapegoat (skap"got') The term "scapegoat," a person made to bear the blame for others or to suffer in their place, comes from the sixteenth chapter of Leviticus, which describes how the high priest Aaron was directed to select two goats. One goat was to be a burnt offering to the Lord; the other, an "escape goat" for atonement, was presented alive to the Lord and sent away into the wilderness to carry away the sins of the people. The word "scape" was a shortening of "escape."

True/False
In the space provided, write T if the definition of the numbered word is true or F if it is false.

T or F

1. kibitzer                          busybody _____
2. reynard                          goat _____
3. blitzkrieg                       negotiations _____
4. solecism                         bad grammar _____
5. tariff                              customs duties _____
6. spinnaker                       craftsperson _____
7. requiem                         revival _____
8. lampoon                        enlighten _____
9. scapegoat                      substitute victim _____
10. entrepreneur                organizer and manager _____

Matching Synonyms
Match each of the following numbered words with its closest synonym. Write your answer in the space provided.

1. tariff                              a. sail _____
2. lampoon                        b. mock _____
3. kibitzer                          c. funeral mass _____
4. scapegoat                      d. fox _____
5. reynard                          e. customs duties _____
6. requiem                         f. business manager _____
7. solecism                         g. busybody _____
8. blitzkrieg                       h. grammatical error _____
9. spinnaker                       i. victim _____
10. entrepreneur                j. all-out attack _____


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